PRODUCT 


vtain 


Lib.  AGRICULTURAL  PEM7 


"  The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man,  and  all  historic 
nobility  rests  on  possession  and  use  of  land." 

—EMERSON. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED    BY 

KARY  C.  DAVIS,  PH.D.  (CORNELL) 

PROFESSOR  OF  AGRICULTURE,   SCHOOL  OF  COUNTRY  LIFE 
GEORGE  PEABODY  COLLEGE  FOR  TEACHERS,   NASHVILLE.  TENNESSKB 


PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS 

BY  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  M.A. 

PROFESSOR  OF  FARM  CROPS,  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


LIPPINCOTTS 

FARM  MANUALS 

Edited  by  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D. 


SECOND  EDITION  REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE  SWINE  HUSBANDRY 
BY  GEORGE  E.  DAY,  B.S.A. 

PROF.  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY,  ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,  CANADA. 

96  illustrations.  xiii+ 363  pages.  $1.75  net. 

SECOND  EDITION  REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 
BY  HARRY  R.  LEWIS,  B.S. 

POULTRY  HUSBANDRYMAN,  NEW  JERSEY  AGRICULTURAL 
EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

330  illustrations.  xxi  + 536  pages.  $2.00  net. 

SECOND  EDITION  REVISED 

PRODUCTIVE  HORSE  HUSBANDRY 
BY  CARL  W.  GAY,  B.S.A. 

PROF.  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY,  CHAIRMAN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  SECTION, 

DEPARTMENT     OF     AGRICULTURE, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA. 

176  illustrations.  xvi+jji  pages.  $1-75  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  ORCHARDING 
BY  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S. 

PROF.  OF  POMOLOGY,  MASSACHUSETTS  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE. 

1 88  illustrations.  xiv  +  314  pages.  $1.75  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

BY  JOHN  W.  LLOYD,  M.S.A. 

PROF.  OF  OLERICULTURE,  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS. 

194  illustrations.  xiii  -f-  339  pages.  $1-75  net. 

SECOND   EDITION  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 

PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

BY  F.  W.  WOLL,  Pn.D. 

PROF.  OF  ANIMAL  NUTRITION,  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

106  illustrations.  xii  -\~375  pages.  $1-75  net. 

SECOND  EDITION 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 
BY  R.  A.  CRAIG,  D.V.M. 

PROF.  VETERINARY  SCIENCE,  PURDUE  UNIVERSITY. 

124  illustrations.  xii  +  334  pages.  $1-75  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS 
BY  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  M.A. 

PROF.  OF  FARM'CROPS,  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY. 

204  illustrations .  xix  +  501  pages.  $1.75  net. 

PRODUCTIVE  BEE  KEEPING 
BY  FRANK  C.  PELLETT 

STATE  APIARIST  OF  IOWA. 

JJ5  illustrations.  ociv  +  302  pages.  $1.75  net. 

IN    PREPARATION 

PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING 

BY  R.  M.  WASHBURN 

PROF.  OF  DAIRY  HUSBANDRY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA. 

132  illustrations.  xii  +  393  pages.  $1-75  net. 


LiPPiNCOTT's  FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED  BY  K.  C.  DAVIS,  PH.D.  (CORNELL) 

PRODUCTIVE 
FARM   CROPS 


BY 

E.  G.  MONTGOMERY,  M.A, 

-y 

PROFESSOR   OF  FARM   CROPS,   CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 


"  If  vain  our  toil, 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil." 

POPE — Essay  on  Man 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,   Ipl6 
BY  J.    B.    LlPPINCOTT    COMPANY 


Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
The  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  V.  S.  A. 


PREFACE 

IN  the  preparation  of  this  book,  the  author  has  endeavored  to 
develop  the  fundamental  principles  of  crop  production,,  as  demon- 
strated by  practical  experience.  In  general  the  principles  referred 
to  are  supported  by  experimental  evidence.  No  exhaustive  analysis 
of  experimental  evidence  is  attempted,  but  only  sufficient  to  clearly 
prove  the  principles.  Involved  and  debatable  problems  are  generally 
avoided,  as  there  is  sufficient  standard  and  accepted  work  for  the 
scope  of  this  book. 

The  text  is  intended  for  the  use  of  students  having  some  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  crop  production.  It  is  hoped  to  meet  the  needs 
of  such  students  in  agricultural  short  courses,  and  secondary  schools, 
and  also  a  considerable  class  of  beginners  in  agricultural  colleges. 
Being  of  a  practical  nature, the  book  will  also  be  found  a  handy  book 
for  farmers  desiring  a  reference  book  covering  all  of  the  cultivated 
crops. 

E.  GT.  MONTGOMERY. 
CORNELL  UNIVERSITY,  Ithaca,  N.  YOJ 
December,  1915. 


385133 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

CLASSIFICATION,  ORIGIN,  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FIELD  CROPS 1 

Early  Culture  of  Plants — Number  of  Cultivated  Plants — Classifica- 
tion by  Use — Important  Botanical  Groups — The  Most  Important 
Crops — Factors  Affecting  the  Culture  of  Crops. 

CHAPTER  II 

How  PLANTS  GROW 5 

The  Parts  of  a  Plant — The  General  Functions — Elements  Required 
for  Growth — Plant  Food  Sources — Relative  Composition  of  Plants — 
How  Roots  and  Leaves  Perform  Their  Functions — The  Root  System 
— Root-hairs — Osmosis — Evaporation  of  Plant  Water — Leaves  and 
Their  Functions — Leaf  Structure — Assimilation — Distribution  of 
Manufactured  Products. 

CHAPTER  III 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  SEEDS 13 

Function  and  Use  of  Seeds — Nature  of  Seeds — Preserving  the  Vital- 
ity of  Seeds — Good  Seeds — How  Germination  Takes  Place — When 
Seeds  Sprout — Large  and  Small  Seeds — Shrunken  Seeds — Structure 
of  Seeds. 

CHAPTER  IV 

COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  CEREALS 21 

Germination — -Temporary  and  Permanent  Roots — Tillers — Tlie 
Stems  of  Cereals — The  Ear  or  Head— The  Spikelet — The  Flower — 
Fertilization — Cross-  and  Self-Fertilization — Formation  of  the  Seed 
— Composition  of  the  Seed — Composition  of  Cereals — Composition 
of  Hard  and  Soft  Grain — Effect  of  Climate  on  Composition — Moisture 
in  Grain. 

CHAPTER  V 

CROPPING  SYSTEMS 31 

Productiveness — How  Rock  Minerals  Become  Soluble — Nitrogen — 
Its  Fixation  by  Legumes — Importance  of  Organic  Matter — Effects 
of  Cropping — Single  Cropping  System — Alternating  Crops — Rota- 
tion Farming — What  Rotation  Does — Rotations  Do  Not  Keep  Up 
Mineral  Supply — Some  Results  with  Rotation — Applying  Fertilizers 
— Amount  Applied — Lime — Manure — Care  of  Manure. 

CHAPTER  VI 

CORN 41 

Where  Corn  is  Produced — The  Corn  Belt — The  Origin  of  Corn — 
Classification  of  Corn — Pop-corn — Flint  Corn — Dent  Corn — Soft 
Corn — Sweet  Corn — Number  of  Varieties — Growth  and  Develop- 
ment of  Parts — Fertilization — Hybridizing. 

CHAPTER  VII 

CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  REQUIRED  FOR  CORN 55 

Effect  of  Climate— Sunshine — Soils  for  Corn — Length  of  Growing 
Season — Rainfall — Importance  of  Adaptation. 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VIII 

CORN  CULTURE ^ flg 

Selecting  a  Variety — Improvement  and  Breeding  of  Corn — Varie- 
ties— Ear-to-row  Breeding — Crossing — Selection  and  Care  of  Seed 
Corn — Selecting  Seed  from  Crib — Field  Selection — Storing  Seed 
Corn — Examining  Seed  Corn — Germination  Tests — Germination 
Box — Doll  Baby  Germinator— Butt  and  Tip  Kernels  for  Seed. 

CHAFTER  IX 

PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  CORN 67 

Plowing  Corn  Land — Depth  of  Plowing — Fall  or  Spring  Plowing — 
Time  of  Spring  Plowing — -Preparation  After  Plowing — Planting  Corn 
— Hand  Planting — Drilling — Check-row  Planting — Listing — Yield 
of  Hill  and  Drill  Planting — Time  of  Planting— Depth  of  Planting — 
Rate  of  Planting — Relation  of  Soil  and  Climate. 

CHAPTER  X 

TILLAGE  FOR  CORN 74 

Tillage  Machinery — Weeders — Lister  Cultivators — Reasons  for  Inter- 
tillage — Loss  of  Soil  Moisture — Water  Loss  in  Fields — Conserving 
Moisture  in  a  Corn  Field — Effect  of  Weeds — The  Function  of  Inter- 
culture  for  Corn — Depth  of  Cultivation — Frequency  of  Cultivation. 

CHAPTER  XI 

HARVESTING  AND  UTILIZING  CORN 80 

m  Methods  of  Harvesting — Pasturing  Corn  Stalks — Cost  of  Saving 
Stover — Harvesting  Corn  Fodder — Corn  Harvesters  and  Binders — 
Shocking  Fodder — Hauling  and  Storing  Fodder — When  to  Harvest 
Fodder — Relative  Proportion  of  Parts — Husking  Ears— Storing 
Ears — Shrinkage  of  Corn  in  Curing — Cost  of  Producing  Corn — How 
Silage  is  Made — Uses  of  Corn — Glucose — Cereal  Foods — Starch — 
Distillery  Products. 

CHAPTER  XII 

CORN  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 88 

Corn  Insects  Below  Ground — Insects  Above  Ground — Migratory 
Insects — Birds  and  Rodents. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

POP-CORN  AND  SWEET  CORN 90 

Pop-corn — Varieties — Harvesting — Marketing — Sweet  Corn — Varie- 
ties— Harvesting . 

CHAPTER  XIV 

CORN  JUDGING 93 

Practical  Characters — Maturity — Soundness — Fancy  Characters — 
Shape  of  Ear — Shape  of  Kernels — Character  of  Germ — The  Score 
Card — Corn  Judging — Explanation  of  Points — Fancy  Points — Prac- 
tice Work  in  Scoring  Corn. 

CHAPTER  XV 

WHEAT 104 

Production  of  Wheat — Wheat  in  the  United  States — Production  Not 
Increasing — Spring  and  Winter  Wheat — Advantages  of  Winter  Wheat 
— Wheat  as  a  Bread  Crop. 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  XVI 

ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WHEAT  TYPES 109 

Origin — Related  Wild  Forms — Classification — Bread  Wheats — 
Hard  and  Soft  Wheat— Wheat  Regions— The  Durum  Wheat  Group- 
Drought  Resistance^— Durum  Wheat  Types — The  Spelt  Wheat  Group 
— How  Varieties  Originate — Varieties  by  Selection — Natural  Occur- 
rence of  New  Types — Examples  of  Successful  Selection — Crossing 
Wheats — Winter  and  Spring  Varieties. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

WHEAT  CULTURE 123 

Soils  for  Wheat — Soil  Types  Compared — Early  Plowing  for  Winter 
Wheat — The  Compact  Seed-bed — Deep  or  Shallow  Plowing — Un- 
certainty of  Rules — Fertilizers  for  Wheat — Minerals  Used  in  Early 
Growth — Time  of  Sowing  Winter  Wheat — Time  of  Sowing  Spring 
Wheat — Rate  of  Sowing  Wheat — Broadcast  Sowing  vs.  Drilling — 
Winter-killing — Seed  Wheat — Changing  Seed — Home-grown  Seed  at 
Ontario — Cultivation  of  Wheat — Pasturing  Wheat — Summer  Fallow 
for  Wheat — The  Listing  Method. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

HARVESTING,  MARKETING,  AND  UTILIZING  WHEAT 132 

Harvesting — Shocking — Threshing  from  Shock  or  Stack — Cost  of 
Producing  Wheat — Shrinkage  in  Storage — Market  Grades. 

CHAPTER  XIX 

DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 137 

Rust — Smut — Infection — Treatment  of  Seed — Scab — Insect  Ene- 
mies— Hessian  Fly — Chinch  Bugs — The  Plant  Louse — The  Wheat 
Midge. 

CHAPTER  XX 

OATS 141 

Production  of  Oats — Oats  in  the  United  States — Early  History — 
Classification  of  Oats — Color  of  Grain — Distribution  of  Groups — 
Spring  and  Winter  Oats — Early  and  Late  Oats — Hulless  Oats — 
Description  of  Oat  Plant — Tillering  or  Stooling — Description  of  Oat 
Spikelet — The  Oat  Grain — Factors  Affecting  Percentage  of  Hull — 
Value  of  Hull  and  Kernel — Estimating  Value  of  Oat  Grain — Weight 
per  Bushel — Clipped  Oats — Quality  of  Oat  Straw — Proportion  of 
Grain  to  Straw. 

CHAPTER  XXI 

CULTURE  OF  OATS '. 157 

Climatic  Requirements — Importance  of  Water — Soils  Adapted  to 
Oats — Fertilizer  and  Manure  for  Oats — Kind  of  Fertilizer — Prepara- 
tion of  Seed-bed — Preparing  Seed  Oats — Treating  Oats  for  Smut — 
Formalin  Treatment — Time  of  Seeding  Oats — Rate  of  Seeding — 
Method  of  Sowing — Depth  of  Sowing — Oats  as  a  Nurse  Crop— Sow- 
ing Oats  in  Mixtures — Cultivation  of  Oats — Spraying  for  Weeds. 

CHAPTER  XXII 

HARVESTING  AND  UTILIZING  THE  OAT  CROP 167 

Time  of  Cutting — Methods  of  Harvesting — Shocking  Oats — Thresh- 
ing Oats — Storing  Oats  in  Barns  or  Stacks — Diseases  and  Insects 
Affecting  Oats— Oat  Smut  and  Rust — Spikelet  Blight — Blade  Blight 
— Utilizing  the  Oat  Crop — Preparing  for  Market — Market  Grades. 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

BARLEY 174 

Production  of  Barley — Barley  in  the  United  States — Origin  and 
Description  of  Barley  Types — Classification  of  Barleys— Structure  of 
the  Spike — The  Hulless  Barleys— Types  of  Awn — Color  of  Grain — 
Winter  and  Spring  Barleys — Types  in  Cultivation — Distribution  of 
Types — Varieties  in  Use— Comparative  Qualities — Feed  Barley. 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

RYE 189 

Rye  Production — Origin  and  History — Description  of  the  Plant — The 
Rye  Grain — Classification  of  Rye — Climate  for  Rye — Soils  for  Rye — 
Rye  in  Rotations — Rye  and  Vetch — Cultural  Methods — Harvesting 
Rye— Threshing  Rye— Market  for  Rye  Straw— World's  Rye  Crop 
and  Price  of  Wheat — Insect  Enemies  and  Diseases. 

CHAPTER  XXV 

BUCKWHEAT. 196 

Buckwheat  Production — Origin  and  History — Relationships — De- 
scription of  Plant — The  Flowers— The  Buckwheat  Grain — Composi- 
tion, Classification — Common  Buckwheat — Tartary  Buckwheat — 
Climate  for  Buckwheat — Soils  for  Buckwheat — Fertilizers — Prepara- 
tion of  Land — Time  of  Seeding — Sowing  the  Seed — Harvesting — 
Threshing — Uses  of  Buckwheat — Buckwheat  as  Green  Manure. 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

COTTON 203 

World  Production  of  Cotton — Production  in  the  United  States — Pro- 
duction by  States — Early  History  of  Cotton — History  in  America — 
Invention  of  the  Cotton  Gin — Cotton  Manufacture  in  the  United 
States — Classification — Species  Grown  in  the  United  States — Up- 
land Cotton — Varieties — Description  of  the  Cotton  Plant — Fiber — 
Seed — By-products  of  Cotton. 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

COTTON  CULTURE t 218 

Climate — Soils — Fertilizers — The  Culture  of  Cotton — Disposal  of 
Old  Stalks — Time  of  Plowing — Method  of  Plowing— Depth  of 
Plowing — Disking  and  Harrowing — Importance  of  Thorough  Prepa- 
ration— Planting  on  Ridges  or  Beds — Planting  Level — Level  Culture 
vs.  Ridge  Culture — Date  of  Planting — The  Process  of  Planting — 
Thinning  or  Chopping — Cultivation — Harvesting — Marketing  the 
Crop — Insect  Enemies  of  Cotton — Diseases  of  Cotton. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

FLAX 239 

Importance  of  the  Crop — Culture — Harvesting — Diseases. 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

SORGHUMS 244 

Where  Produced — The  Acreage — Classification — Kafir  or  Kafir  Corn 
— Durra — The  Broom  Corn  Group — Climate  for  Sorghums — 
Drought  resistance — Soils  for  Sorghums — Effect  of  Sorghums  on 
'  Land— Cultural  Methods — Rate  of  Seeding — Time  of  Seeding — 
Planting  and  Cultivation — Harvesting  Grain  Sorghums — Yield  of 
Grain  Sorghums — Feeding  Value  of  Grain  Sorghums — Sorghum  for 
Forage — Rate  of  Sowing—Sorghums  for  Soiling — For  Syrup — Broom 
Corn  Culture. 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  XXX 

IRISH  POTATOES 255 

Where  Grown — Origin  and  History  of  Potatoes — Description  of 
Plant — Seeds — Tuber — Classification — Shape  of  Tuber — Color  of 
Skin — Sprouts — Flowers — Principal  Groups — Importance  of  Groups 
— In  the  Northeastern  States — In  Southeastern  States — North 
Central  States — Western  States — Market  Types— Depth  of  and 
Number  of  Eyes — Structure  and  Composition — Climate  and  Soils 
for  Potatoes — Degeneration — Soils  for  Potatoes — Manures  and  Fer- 
til  izers — Lime — Rotations — Applying  Fertilizer. 

CHAPTER  XXXI 

CULTURE  OF  IRISH  POTATOES 271 

Source  of  Seed — Second  Crop  Seed — Immature  Seed — Storage  of 
Seed — Sprouting  Seed — Greening  Seed — Amount  of  Seed  to  Plant — 
Whole  vs.  Cut  Seed — Time  of  Planting — Depth  of  Planting — Hill  vs. 
Drill  Planting — Level  vs.  Ridge  Cultivation — Tools  for  Cultivation — 
Harvesting  the  Crop — Storage — Changes  in  Storage — Shrinking  in 
Storage — Cold  Storage — Diseases  and  Insects — Controlling  Tuber 
Diseases — Controlling  Vine  Diseases — Insects  and  Insecticides — Im- 
provement and  Breeding — Origin  of  New  Varieties — Potatoes  from 
Seeds — Sports  or  Mutations — Systematic  Selections.  r 

CHAPTER  XXXII 

SWEET  POTATOES 288 

The  Roots — Origin  and  History — Types  and  Varieties — Market 
Types — Where  Grown — Climate — Soil — Manure  and  Fertilizers — 
Applying  Fertilizers — Preparation  of  Land — Ridging  and  Level  Cul- 
ture— Propagation  of  Plants — Preparation  of  the  Hot-bed — Number 
of  Plants— Pulling  the  Plants  for  Planting— Setting  the  Plants— Dis- 
tance Apart — Cultivation — Harvesting — Tools — Storing — Construc- 
tion of  Pits — Diseases  and  Insects. 

CHAPTER  XXXIII 

CLASSIFICATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 301 

Classification — Acreage — WThere  Grown — Dominant  Types — Tim- 
othy and  Red  Clover  Region — Cow  Pea  Region — Bermuda  and 
Johnson  Grass — Alfalfa  Region — Grain  Hay — Wild  Hay — Blue-grass 
— White  Clover — Increasing  Production — Yield  and  Prices  of  Hay. 

CHAPTER  XXXIV 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  ECONOMIC  GRASSES  AND  LEGUMES 307 

Number  of  Cultivated  Grasses— Some  Important  Requirements — 
Cheap  Seed — Palatable,  Productive,  Persistent — Origin  of  Forage 
Grasses — The  Improvement  of  Grasses — Characteristics  of  Grasses — 
Grass  Roots — Bunch  and  Sod  Grasses — Base  of  Stems  Prostrate — 
Stolons — Rhizomes — Adaptation  of  Types — Palatability  of  Grasses — 
Adaptation  to  Wet  or  Dry  Land — Adaptation  to  Acid  or  Limestone 
Soils — Life  Period  of  Forage  Plants— Permanent  Grasses. 

CHAPTER  XXXV 

GRASS  MIXTURES — SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 317 

For  Pastures  and  Lawns — Meadow  Mixtures— Soil  Not  Uniform — 
Pasture  Mixtures — Supplementary  Pastures — Temporary  Pastures — 
Permanent  Pastures — Other  Grasses— Natural  Pastures— Grass  Seeds 
—Inert  Matter — Sold  by  Weight — Dead  Seeds — Immature  Seeds — 


xii  CONTENTS 

Hard  Seeds — Weed  Seeds — Germination  Tests — Actual  Value  of  Seed 
— Adulteration  of  Seeds — Buying  Grass  Seed — Where  Seeds  are 
Grown— Sowing  Grass  Crops — Nurse  Crops — Sowing  Grass  Crops 
Alone — Sowing  in  Cultivated  Crops — Time  of  Sowing — Amount  of 
Seed  to  Sow. 

CHAPTER  XXXVI 

CARE  OF  GRASS 338 

Fertilizers  for  Grass — Kinds  and  Amounts  of  Fertilizers — Methods 
of  Application — Manure  for  Grass  Land — Reasons  for  Fertilization 
— Kind  of  Meadows  to  Fertilize — Weeds  in  Meadows. 

CHAPTER  XXXVII 

THE  PRINCIPAL  CULTIVATED  GRASSES 343 

Timothy — Origin  and  History — Climatic  Adaptations — Its  Advan- 
tages—Seed and  Seeding — Lime  and  Fertilizers — Cutting  for  Hay — 
Composition  and  Feeding  Value — Yield  and  Life  History — Diseases 
and  Insects — Redtop — Origin  and  History — Climatic  Adaptations — 
Life  History — For  Pasture  and  Meadow — Seed  and  Seeding — Bent 
Grasses — Orchard-grass — Origin  and  History — Climatic  and  Soil 
Adaptations — Advantages  and  Disadvantages — Seed  and  Seeding — 
Mixtures  of  Orchard-grass — The  Blue-grasses — Kentucky  Blue- 
grass  —  Origin  and  History  —  Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptations — 
Its  Characteristics — Seeds  and  Seeding — Time  of  Seeding — Seed 
Production — Canadian  Blue-grass — Origin  and  History — Seed  and 
Seeding. 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

THE  SECONDARY  GRASSES 358 

Brome-grass — Characteristics — Seed  and  Seeding — Tall  Meadow 
Oat-grass — Origin  and  History — Climatic  Adaptations — Character- 

,  istics — Seed  and  Seeding — Meadow  Fescue — Origin  and  History — 
Adaptations — Seed  and  Seeding — Characteristics — Rye-grasses — Per- 
ennial Rye-grass — Origin  and  History — Adaptations  and  Character- 
istics— Seed  and  Seeding — Italian  Rye-grass — Origin  and  History — 
Adaptation  and  Characteristics  —  Seed  and  Seeding — Bermuda 
Grass — Description — Climate  and  Soils — Culture  and  Yield — Mix- 
tures for  Bermuda  Grass — Johnson  Grass — 'Culture — Soudan  Grass. 

CHAPTER  XXXIX 

MILLETS 369 

Distribution — Kinds — Culture — Rate  of  Sowing — Feeding  Value — 
Japanese  Barnyard  Millet — Broom-corn  Millet — Pearl  Millet. 

CHAPTER  XL 

LEGUMES 375 

Principal  Cultivated  Legumes — Comparison  with  Grasses — Compo- 
sition of  Legumes  and  Grasses — Effect  on  Fertility  of  the  Soil — Time 
of  Harvesting — How  Legumes  Take-  Nitrogen  from  the  Air — Forms 
for  Different  Legumes — How  to  Inoculate — Need  of  Inoculation — 
Soils  for  Legumes — Lime  Requirements  of  Legumes. 

CHAPTER  XLI 

ALFALFA 384 

Origin  and  History — Climatic  Requirements — Classification — Blue- 
flowered  Alfalfa — Variegated  Alfalfas — Yellow-flowered  Alfalfa — 
Alfalfa  Roots — Development  of  Shoots — Life  Period  of  Alfalfa — 
Pollination — Soils  for  Alfalfa — Lime — Manure  and  Fertilizers — 


CONTENTS  xiii 

Methods  of  Seeding — Amount  of  Seed — Inoculation  for  Alfalfa — 
Time  of  Sowing — Harvesting  Alfalfa — The  Seed  Crop — Growing 
Alfalfa  in  Rows — Cultivation  of  Alfalfa — Pasturing  Alfalfa — Dis- 
eases and  Insect  Enemies. 

CHAPTER  XLII 

THE  CLOVERS 398 

Red  Clover — Origin  and  History — Soils  for  Red  Clover — Agricultural 
Varieties— Sowing  Clover — Rate  of  Sowing — Fertilizers  for  Clover — 
Clover  in  Rotation — Roots  of  Clover— ^Sterns  and  Leaves — Harvest- 
ing Red  Clover — Brown  Hay — Ensilage — Pollination  and  Seed 
Production — The  Seed  Crop — Harvesting — Color  of  Seed — Diseases 
— Inoculation  for  Clover — Alsike  Clover — Characters — Climate  and 
Soil  Adaptations — Culture — White  Clover — Description — Adapta- 
tions— Mixtures — Sweet  Clover — Description — Seed  and  Seeding — 
Adaptation — Utilizing  the  Crop — Inoculation — Crimson  Clover — 
Description — Adaptation — Seed  and  Seeding — Utilizing  the  Crop 
— Burr  Clover — Japan  Clover — Description — Adaptations — Culture 
— Utilization — Velvet  Beans — Florida  Beggar  Weed. 

CHAPTER  XLIII 

Cow  PEAS,  SOY  BEANS,  FIELD  PEAS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 420 

Cow  Peas — Origin  and  History — Classification — Best  Known  Varie- 
ties— Adaptations — Culture — Time  of  Sowing — Harvesting — Insects 
and  Diseases — Soy  Beans — Origin  and  History — Varieties — Adapta- 
tions— Description — Culture  for  Seed  Production — Growing  Soy 
Beans  for  Forage— Mixed  with  Corn — Inoculation — Utilizing  the 
Crop— Field  Peas— Adaptations —  Culture — Mixtures — Utilization — 
Pea  Weevil — Vetches — Common  Vetch — Adaptations — Culture — 
Harvesting — Pasture — Hairy  Vetch — Adaptations — Culture — Har- 
vesting— Other  Vetches — Vetch-like  Plants — Peanut — Origin  and 
History — Where  Grown — Description — Classification  of  Varieties — 
Composition — Climatic  Requirements — Soils — Fertilizers  and  Ma- 
nures— Preparation  of  the  Land — Distance  to  Plant — Time  of  Plant- 
ing— Method  of  Cultivation — Harvesting — Time  of  Digging — 
Methods  of  Digging — Curing  the  Peanuts — Picking  and  Storing — 
Preparation  for  Market — Uses  of  the  Peanut — Peanuts  as  a  Stock 
Feed — Insects  and  Diseases. 

CHAPTER  XLIV 

ROOT  CROPS 450 

Importance — Beets — Root,  Stem  and  Crown — Shape  of  Mangels — 
Structure — Composition — Preparation  of  Land — Manure  and  Fertil- 
izers —  Seeding  —  Thinning  —  Cultivation  —  Harvesting  — Yields  — 
Feeding  Value — Turnips — Comparison  of  Beets  and  Turnips — Cul- 
ture— Rape — Carrots . 

CHAPTER  XLV 

TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 458 

Importance  in  America — Where  Grown — Description — Composition 
—Types  and  Varieties— Soils  and  Effects  of  Soil  on  Type— Effect  of 
Crop  on  Soil  —  Fertilizers  for  Special  Results  —  For  the  Various 
Tobacco  Regions — Forms  of  Potash  to  Use — Source  of  Nitrogen — 
Of  Phosphoric  Acid — Stalks  and  Stems — Breeding  and  Selecting 
.  Tobacco— The  Plant  Bed— Sowing  the  Seed— Preparing  the  Field- 
Distances  of  Planting — Transplanting  to  the  Field — Seasons  for 
Setting  in  Different  Regions — Care  of  the  Growing  Crop — Cultiva- 


xiv  CONTENTS 

tion — Topping — Suckering— Priming — Tobacco  Rotations  in  Different 
Regions — Growing  Tobacco  Under  Artificial  Shade — Harvesting — 
Curing — Air  Curing — Open  Fire  Curing — Flue-curing — Stripping, 
Sorting  and  Tying — Storing — Marketing — Yields  and  Prices — Insect 
Enemies  —  Tobacco  Horn  Worm  —  Cutworms  — Wireworms  —  Bud- 
worms — The  Splitworm — Tobacco  Thrips — Fungous  Diseases — Bed- 
rot  or  Damping  Off — Root  Rot  or  Black  Root — Brown  and  White 
Rusts — Mosaic  Disease  or  Calico — Shed  Burn  or  Pole  Rot — Stem 
Rot— Wet  Butts  or  Fat  Stem— Black  Rot  in  Sweating— White  Vein 
Disease — Molds  or  Rusts. 

APPENDICES 

I.  LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER  BUSHEL  OF  SEEDS 482 

II.  MARKET  GRADES  OF  HAY  AND  STRAW 484 

III.  GRADES  OF  GRAIN 486 

INDEX.  .  495 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIQ.  PAGE 

Wheat,  the  Staff  of  Life,  as  Grown  in  the  Great  Plains  of  Nebraska 
Frontispiece 

1.  Diagram  Illustrating  the  Relative  Proportion  of  Dry  Matter  and 

Water  in  a  Green  Plant 6 

2.  Root-hairs 8 

3.  Diagram  Illustrating  the  Assimilation  of  Food  Materials  by  a  Plant . .  10 

4.  Germination  in  Corn 15 

5.  Wheat  Grain  in  Three  Stages  of  Germination,  on  the  First,  Second  and 

Third  Days  after  Being  Placed  in  Germinator 16 

6.  Gerniinator  Made  by  Inverting  a  Glass  Tumbler  on  a  Glass  Plate; 

Also  One  Made  with  Two  Plates  and  Blotting  Paper 18 

7.  A  Box  Germinator 19 

8.  Germinating  Oats  and  Barley 21 

9.  Early  Development  of  Wheat  Plant 22 

10.  Comparative  Study  of  Spikelets ' .  24 

11.  Diagram  of  a  Wheat  Flower 25 

12.  Ovary  of  Wheat  Grain 25 

13.  Diagram  of  a  Corn  Kernel  to  Show  the  Four  Principal  Parts 26 

14.  Plowing  Under  Rye  for  Green  Manure 33 

15.  Distribution  of  Corn  Production  in  the  United  States 42 

16.  Coyote  Corn,  a  Form  Found  Growing  Wild  in  Mexico 44 

17.  Six  Principal  Types  of  Corn 45 

18.  Kernels  of  Principal  Types  of  Corn 46 

19.  Ear  of  Corn  in  Full  Silk,  and  Ready  to  be  Fertilized 50 

20.  Method  of  Preparing  a  Laboratory  Exercise,  and  also  Showing  in 

Detail  the  Male  and  Female  Flowers  of  Corn 51 

21.  Corn  Plant  Prepared  for  Artificial  Crossing 52 

22.  Effect  of  Crossing  and  Self -Fertilization  on  Vigor  of  Plants 53 

23.  Stalk  of  Prolific  Corn,  Leaves  Removed  to  Show  Ears 59 

24.  Difference  in  Types  of  Corn 60 

25.  Two  Types  of  Learning  Corn  Developed  by  Six  Years'  Selection  at  the 

Illinois  Experiment  Station 61 

26.  A  Box  Tester  for  Seed  Cora. 63 

27.  Wheat  Plant  Illustrating  the  Principle  That  Permanent  Roots  Always 

Develop  at  About  the  Same  Depth,  Whether  the  Seed  Is  Planted 

Deep  or  Shallow 70 

28.  Two-row  Cultivator,  for  Listed  Corn,  at  Work 75 

29.  Drawing  Showing  the  Distribution  of  Corn  Roots  in  the  Soil 78 

30.  Harvesting  Corn  by  Hand 81 

31.  Harvesting  Corn  with  a  Corn  Binder 82 

32.  An  Ideal  Ear  of  Dent  Corn  of  Fancy  Type 94 

33.  Shape  of  Ear 95 

34.  Tips  of  Ears 98 

35.  Butts  of  Ears 98 

36.  Shape  of  Kernels 99 

37.  Shallow,  Medium  and  Deep  Kernels.     Large  Shank,  Medium,  and 

Too  Small 100 

38.  A  Well-selected  Exhibit  of  Fancy  Ears 101 

39.  Production  of  Wheat  in  the  World 105 

xv 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

40.  Spring  Wheat  Production. 106 

41.  Winter  Wheat  Production 107 

42.  Bread  Wheats 110 

43.  Durum  Wheat  Group 112 

44.  Spelt  Wheat  Group 113 

45.  The  Principal  Wheat  Regions,  According  to  Type  of  Wheat  Grown. .  114 

46.  Distribution  of  Durum  Wheat 115 

47.  Types  of  Wheat  Grains 117 

48.  Grains  of  Spelt  Wheat  Group 118 

49.  An  Example  of  Selection 1 18 

50.  Drilling  Wheat  with  a  Double  Disc  Drill 128 

51.  Distribution  of  Oat  Production 142 

52.  Distribution  of  Oat  Production  in  the  United  States 143 

53.  Loose  Type  of  Side  Panicle,  Sparrow  bill 144 

54.  Compact  Side  Oats,  and  Open  Type  of  Semiside  Oats.     Varieties, 

Clydsdale  and  Black  Finnish ' 145 

55.  Types  of  Oat  Grain 146 

56.  Three  Types  of  Early  Oats,  of  Open  Panicle  Type 147 

57.  Large  White  Oats,  Open  Panicle,  Variety  Big  Four,  and  Chinese  Hul- 

less  Oats 149 

58.  Oats  Harvest  in  Nebraska 168 

59.  G9od  Shocks  of  Oats,  Well  Capped 169 

60.  Distribution  of  Barley  Production  in  the  World 175 

61.  Distribution  of  Barley-Production  in  United  States 176 

62.  Heads  of  Six-row,  Four-row,  and  Two-row  Barley 177 

63.  Difference  Between  Zeocriton  Type  and  Distichum  Type,  Both  Six-row 

and  Two-row .- 178 

64.  Comparison  of  Two-row  and  Six-row  Barley  Grains. 179 

65.  Kernels  of  Hulless  Barley 179 

66.  The  Hooded  or  Trifurcate  Type  and  Awned  Barley 180 

67.  Types  of  Six-row  Barley 182 

68.  Types  of  Two-row  Barley 183 

69.  Four  Types  of  Hulless  Barley  Kernels 184 

70.  Comparison  of  Spikelets  of  Six-row  and  Two-row  Barleys 185 

71.  Distribution  of  Rye  Culture  in  the  World 190 

72.  Rye 191 

73.  Distribution  of  Buckwheat  in  United  States ' 197 

74.  Types  of  Buckwheat  Grain 199 

75.  An  American  Short-staple,  Upland  Variety,  Culpepper 208 

76.  An  American  Long-staple,  Upland  Variety,  Allen's  Early 209 

77.  The  Flower  of  Upland  Cotton,  Viewed  from  the  Side 211 

78.  Showing  the  "Squares"  of  Cotton — the  Unopened  Buds  Enclosed  by 

the  Bracts 211 

79.  Showing  the  Opening  of  the  Cotton  Ball;  and  the  Lock  Cotton,  or 

Seed  Cotton 212 

80.  The  Fiber  of  an  Upland  Short-staple  Variety 213 

81.  The  Fiber  of  an  Upland  Long-staple  Variety 213 

82.  Showing  the  Three  Classes  of  Cotton  Fibers 214 

83.  Showing  Two  Types  of  Cotton  Seed 215 

84.  A  Field  of  Upland  Cotton  in  September 219 

85.  Cultivating  the  Corn  Field  with  a  Weeder  Before  the  Crop  has  Come 

Up 230 

86.  The  Use  of  Two-row  Riding  Cultivators . 231 

87.  Cotton  Cultivation  with  a  Single-row  Cultivator 232 

88.  Production  of  FlaxSeed  in  the  World 240 

89.  Distribution  of  Flax  Production  (Seed)  in  United  States 241 

90.  Flaxseed  Balls 242 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

91.  Head  of  Amber  Sweet  Sorghum 246 

92.  Plant  of  Kafir  Corn 247 

93.  Non-saccharine  Sorghums 247 

94.  Sorghum  Seeds 248 

95.  Broom-corn  Group  of  Sorghums 249 

96.  Field  of  Selected  Brown  Kowliang 251 

97.  Chart  Showing  Distribution  of  Potato  Production  in  the  World.  . .  .  256 
98    Chart  Showing  the  Distribution  of  Potato  Production  in  the  United 

States 258 

99.  Drawing  in  Diagram  of  Potato  Flower,  and  Mature  Seed  Balls. . . .  259 

100.  Illustration  of  a  Potato  Plant,  Showing  Relation  of  the  Above-ground 

Stem  and  Under-ground  Stem 260 

101.  Variety,    Irish  Cobbler,   Representing  the  Early,   Round,   White- 

skinned  Type 261 

102.  Rural  New  Yorker,  Representing  the  Oval-flattened  Type  of  White- 

skinned  Potatoes  with  Blue  Sprouts 261 

103.  Early  Rose,  Representing  the  Rose  Group  of  Long,  Pink  or  Red- 

skinned  Potatoes  with  Rather  Deep  Eyes 262 

104.  Russet  Burbank,  Representing  the  Medium  Long  Types  of  the  Bur- 

bank  Group ,263 

105.  Illustration  Showing  the  Internal  Structure  of  a  Potato  Tuber,  and 

Relation  to  Structure  of  a  Stem 265 

106.  Intensive  Potato  Culture  on  a  Long  Island  Farm,  Under  the  "  Skin- 

ner System  "  of  Irrigation 269 

107.  Comparing  Tubers  Sprouted  in  Strong  Light  and  in  Darkness 273 

108.  A  Good  Type  of  Cultivator.    The  Rows  Have  Already  Been  Ridged 

with  a  Killer 277 

109.  A  Large  Potato  Digger : 278 

110.  A  Dozen  Plants,  in  a  Good  Field,  Killed  by  the  Disease  Rhizoctonia.  280 

111.  A  Power  Sprayer  That  Will  Spray  Seven  Rows  at  One  Time 281 

112.  Potato  Affected  with  the  Rot,  Resulting  from  Late  Blight 282 

113.  A  Good  Field  of  Potatoes .283 

114.  A  Single  Sweet  Potato  from  the  Hot-bed,  Showing  Many  Young 

Sprouts 288 

115.  Sweet  Potato  Leaf  and  Blossom 289 

116.  Some  Commercial  Types  of  Sweet  Potatoes 290 

117.  Map  Showing  Range  of  Production  of  Sweet  Potatoes 291 

118.  Sweet  Potato  Plant  Ready  to  Set  in  Field 294 

119.  Transplanting  Machine 295 

120.  Special  Plow,  Fitted  with  Two  Rolling  Coulters  for  Digging  Sweet 

Potatoes 296 

121.  Storage  Houses 298 

122.  Sweet  Potato  Affected  with  Black  Rot,  and  Plant  Affected  with 

Same  Disease 299 

123.  Distribution  of  Forage  Crops  in  United  States 303 

124.  Orchard-grass  Representing  a  Typical  Bunch  Grass 310 

125.  Plants  Used  in  Mixture  for  Pasture  on  Poor  Land 321 

126.  A  Student  Identifying  Clover  Seed.  .  . 330 

127.  Tripod  Lens  Used  in  Identifying  Seeds 330 

128.  Crimson  Clover 330 

129.  Alfalfa 331 

130.  Yellow  Trefoil 331 

131.  White  Clover 331 

132.  Bokhara  Clover 331 

133.  Alsike  Clover 332 

134.  Red  Clover 332 

135.  Sainfoin .  332 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

136.  Sweet  Clover 332 

137.  Japan  Clover 333 

138.  Millet  Seeds 333 

139.  Meadow  Foxtail 334 

140.  Annual  Rye  Grass 334 

141.  Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass 334 

142.  Sheep  Fescue 334 

143.  Crested  Dog's  Tail 335 

144.  Orchard  Grass 335 

145.  Wheat  Grass 335 

146.  Brome-grass 335 

147.  Perennial  Rye  Grass 336 

148.  Meadow  Fescue 336 

149.  Johnson  Grass 336 

150.  Redtop 336 

151.  Kentucky  Blue-grass 336 

152.  Timothy 336 

153.  Experimental  Plots  Showing  Growth  of  Timothy  on  Fertilized  and 

Unfertilized  Plots 341 

154.  A  Productive  Hay  Field,  the  Kind  that  Usually  Responds  Well  to 

Fertilizer / 342 

155.  Timothy  Head 344 

156.  Redtop 348 

157.  Orchard-grass 351 

158.  Kentucky  Blue-grass  and  Canadian  Blue-grass 354 

159.  Smooth  Brome-grass 359 

160.  Tall  Meadow  Oat-grass 359 

161.  Meadow  Fescue  or  English  Blue-grass.  ." 361 

162.  English  Rye-grass 361 

163.  Millet  Plants 370 

164.  Common  MiUet 371 

165.  German  Millet 373 

166.  Japanese  Millet 373 

167.  Effect  of  Lime  on  the  Growth  of  Red  Clover 382 

168.  Distribution  of  Alfalfa  in  United  States 385 

169.  Alfalfa   Plants  from  Seedings   Sown  in  August,   September  and 

October,  and  Taken  Up  Following  April 392 

170.  Alfalfa  Seed  and  Dodder  Seed v 394 

171.  Alfalfa  Dodder 395 

172.  Red  Clover  and  White  Clover 399 

173.  Sowing  Red  Clover  in  Fall  Wheat  with  Special  Grass-seed  Drill ....   400 

174.  Seeds  of  the  Clovers 401 

175.  Red  Clover  Seed  and  Common  Weeds  Often  Found  in  It.  .  . 402 

176.  Alsike  Clover 407 

177.  White  Clover 409 

178.  Sweet  Clover 411 

179.  Seed  Pods  and  Seeds  of  Burr  Clover 416 

180.  Cow  Peas  in  Rows 421 

181.  Seeds  of  Cow  Peas  and  Soy  Beans 423 

182.  Soy  Bean  Plant 425 

183.  Soy  Beans  in  Rows,  Three  Feet  Apart,  for  Seed  or  Forage 426 

184.  Mixture  of  Field  Peas  with  Oats 431 

185.  Hairy  Vetch 4& 

186.  Seeds  of  Common  and  of  Hairy  Vetch 436 

187.  Map  of  the  United  States,  Showing  Area  Adapted  to  the  Production 

of  Peanuts -. 439 

188.  Three  Stages  in  Development  of  the  Peanut 440 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

, 

189.  The  Peanut  Plant,  Virginia  Running  Variety t 440 

190.  Two  Types  of  Peanuts 441 

191.  Method  of  Shocking  Peanut  Crop  Over  a  Stake 445 

192.  Table  Beet,  Round  Form. 451 

193.  Mangel  Beets  Long  Form 452 

194.  Kohl-rabi 454 

195.  Rutabaga  or  Swede  Turnips 455 

196.  Tobacco  Plant  Developed  for  Seed  Production 460 

197.  Sterilizing  Tobacco  Beds  by  Steam 466 

198.  Apparatus  for  Separating  Light  and  Heavy  Tobacco  Seed 467 

199.  Cheesecloth  Shape  for  Growing  Fine  Wrapper  Tobacco 471 

200.  Frame  for  Hauling  Tobacco  to  the  Barn,  Wisconsin 472 

201.  Barn  for  Curing  White  Burley  Tobacco,  Kentucky 473 

202.  Barn  for  Curing  Dark  Tobacco,  Tennessee 475 

203.  The  Northern  Tobacco  Worm  or  Horn  Worm.  .  477 


PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS 


CHAPTER  I 

CLASSIFICATION,  ORIGIN,  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
FARM  CROPS 

Early  Culture  of  Plants. — With  the  earliest  recorded  history  of 
man,  it  appears  that  people  at  that  time  lived  very  largely  upon  such 
food  plants  as  they  could  find  growing  wild,  and  whatever  wild  ani- 
mals they  could  kill,  even  as  some  very  primitive  tribes  do  to-day. 
Wild  animals  were  probably  domesticated  before  the  extensive  cul- 
ture of  plants  began.  These  could  be  herded  on  the  native  grasses, 
the  people  moving  from  place  to  place,  as  new  pasture  or  water  was 
required.  Primitive  man  had  no  adequate  tools  for  destroying  the 
forests,  preparing  stubborn  land,  or  cultivating  crops,  hence,  his  first 
culture  of  crops  began  where  natural  difficulties  were  least. 

These  conditions  seem  to  have  been  provided  by  the  great  sandy 
river  beds  and  deltas  in  the  dry  regions,  as  the  valley  of  the  Nile  or 
Euphrates.  Here  irrigation  was  practised  from  the  earliest  times. 
The  culture  of  plants  favored  a  settled  life,  rather  than  a  nomadic 
life,  and  with  settled  and  permanent  communities,  came  civilization. 
A  high  civilization  was  first  developed  in  these  great  river  valleys. 

No  doubt  the  first  cultivated  plants  were  those  the  people  were 
accustomed  to  gather  as  food  in  the  wild  state,  as  wild  barley,  wheat, 
rice,  lentils  and  the  grape.  These  plants  have  been  changed  and 
improved  by  culture  and  selection,  so  the  present  cultivated  forms 
resemble,  only  in  a  general  way,  the  wild  prototypes.  Specimens  of 
wheat  preserved  from  the  Stone  Age  show  the  type  cultivated  then 
to  be  much  more  primitive  than  that  cultivated  to-day. 

Number  of  Cultivated  Plants. — According  to  DeCandolle,1 
there  are  among  cultivated  plants  to-day  some  46  species,  out  of  248, 
that  he  is  reasonably  sure  were  cultivated  more  than  4,000  years  ago, 

1  DeCandolle,  A.:    Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants  (1882),  pp.  436-446. 

1 


2  CLASSIFICATION,  ORIGIN  AND  DISTRIBUTION 

and  some  60  more,  over  ^,000  years  ago.     He  classifies  the  species  as 
follows : 

Old  World  New  World 

Cultivated  for  underground?  parts 26  6 

Cultivated  for  stems  and  leaves 57  8 

Cultivated    for     the    flowers     or     their 

envelopes 4  0 

Cultivated  for  their  fruits 53  24 

Cultivated  for  their  seeds 58  8 

Cryptogam  cultivated  for  whole  plant.  .       0  1 

198  47 

New  species  are  constantly  being  added  to  the  list  of  useful 
plants.  Of  most  species,  cultivated  extensively,  a  great  many  vari- 
eties have  been  developed.  For  example,  with  cultivated  wheat 
there  are  more  than  one  thousand  known  varieties,  and  of  maize  or 
Indian  corn,  at  least  five  or  six  hundred  varieties.. 

Classification  by  Use. — Crops  are  very  commonly  classified 
according  to  use,  as  follows : 

(1)  Cereal  or  grain  crops,  as  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  or  rice. 

(2)  Legumes  for  seed,  as  beans,  lentils,  and  peas. 

(3)  Forage  crops,  as  all  grasses  cut  for  hay,  legumes  cut  for 
forage,  sorghum  and  corn  fodder. 

(4)  Eoots,  as  beets,  turnips,  and  carrots. 

(5)  Fiber  crops,  as  cotton,  flax,  and  hemp. 

(6)  Tubers,  as  potatoes. 

(7)  Sugar  plants,  as  sugar  beets  and  sugar  cane. 

(8)  Stimulants,  as  tobacco,  tea,  and  coffee. 

Other  crops  not  commonly  classed  as  field  crops  would  be  the 
fruits,  vegetable  crops,  and  timber  crops. 

Important  Botanical  Groups. — The  most  important  botanical 
group  is  the  grass  family  (Graminece)  to  which  all  cereals  except 
buckwheat  belong,  and  at  present  perhaps  three-fourths  of  the  forage 
crops  harvested  are  made  up  of  grasses.  The  two  families  next  in 
rank  are  the  legumes  (Leguminosce) ,  so  called  because  the  seeds  in 
most  cases  are  borne  in  a  pod  or  "legume,"  and  the  nightshade 
family  (Solanacece) ,  to  which  belong  the  potato  and  tobacco. 

The  Most  Important  Crops. — The  hay  and  forage  crop  is  the 
most  valuable  and  extensive  crop  of  the  world,  but  is  made  up  of  a 
great  many  kinds  of  plants.  The  world's  most  important  plants  are 


FACTORS  AFFECTING  CULTURE  OF  CROPS        3 

given  in  the  following  diagram,  together  with  the  yield  in  millions 
of  tons: 

World's  Crops  of  the  Most  Important  Food  Plants.     Average  for  5  Years, 

1906-1910 2 


Crop 

Millions 
of  Tons 

Potatoes 

156 

Corn 

113 

Wheat 

107 

Oats 

67 

Rice 

67 

Rye 

46 

Barley 

33 

While  the  world's  production  of  potatoes  outranks  all  others  in 
total  yield,,  the  wheat  crop  has  the  greatest  money  value,  with  pota- 
toes and  corn  probably  ranking  second  and  third.  In  the  United 
States,  corn  is  more  valuable  than  any  other  two  crops,  as  shown  by 
the  following  diagram : 

Relative  Farm  Value  of  Principal  Crops  in  the  United  States.     Average  for 
5  Years,  1906-1910  3 


Crop 

V  MUV  «• 

Millions 

Corn 

$1431 

Hay 

681 

Cotton 

670 

Wheat 

590 

Oats 

367 

Potatoes 

187 

Barley 

92 

Tobacco 

82 

Factors  Affecting  Culture  of  Crops. — While  favorable  weather 
and  soil  are  necessary  for  the  culture  of  a  certain  crop,  yet  when 
both  of  these  conditions  are  favorable,  the  crop  is  often  not  culti- 
vated. Market  demands,  transportation  facilities,  and  competing 
crops  must  all  be  considered.  For  example,  the  southern  states  have 


2  From  "  Corn  Crops,"  by  the  author,  The  Macmillan  Company. 

3  Ibid. 


4  CLASSIFICATION,  ORIGIN  AND  DISTRIBUTION 

favorable  conditions  for  producing  corn,  but  there  it  can  not  at 
present  compete  with  cotton  as  a  cash  crop.  In  the  vicinity  of  great 
cities,  as  in  New  York  State,  it  is  the  perishable  and  bulky  products 
that  are  likely  to  be  produced,  as  milk,  vegetables,  or  hay ;  while  at 
greater  distance,  the  non-perishable  and  concentrated  products  are 
produced,  as  butter,  grain  and  meats. 

Useful  References  to  Literature. — Statistical  data  will  be  found  in  the 
following  publications,  most  of  which  may  be  secured  free:  Annual  Year- 
books of  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  (secure  from  Congress- 
man). Thirteenth  Census  Report,  Census  Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  (avail- 
able to  School  Libraries).  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  an 
annual  publication,  secured  from  Bureau  of  Statistics.  Agricultural 
Graphics,  Bui.  78,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Washington,  D.  C.  (small  charge). 
Seedtime  and  Harvest,  Bui.  85,  Bureau  of  Statistics  (small  charge).  A 
circular  may  be  secured  from  any  of  the  bureaus  in  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture or  Government,  giving  the  name  and  prices  of  publications.  For  His- 
tory of  Cultivated  Plants  see  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants  by  DeCandolle. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  On  what  kind  of  land  did  crop  raising  begin?     Can  you  give  reasons? 

2.  How  did  the  culture  of  crops  affect  the  customs  of  people? 

3.  How  did  cultivated  plants  originate? 

4.  Name  cultivated  plants  belonging  to  each  of  the  six  groups  named  on 

page  2. 

5.  ,Can  you  name  some  important  plants  originating  in  America? 

6.  Name  the  eight  important  groups  of  cultivated  plants  classified  by  use. 

7.  Why  is  the  grass  family  so  important? 

8.  What  are  the  most  important  crops  in  the  world?     In  the  United  States? 

9.  What  crops  are  produced  near  great  markets?     Why? 
10.  What  crops  are  produced  at  a  distance  from  markets? 


CHAPTER  II 
HOW  PLANTS  GROW 

ONLY  a  very  general  statement  will  be  made  here,  outlining  the 
important  features  of  plant  growth.  The  student  is  referred  to  books 
on  botany  or  plant  physiology  for  detailed  information  on  plant 
growth,  and  text-books  on  soils,  for  information  regarding  the  rela- 
tion of  soil  to  plants. 

The  Parts  of  a  Plant. — A  typical  plant  may  be  divided  into 
three  parts  as  follows:  (1)  The  root  system;  (2)  the  vegetative 
part,  consisting  of  stem,  branches,  and  leaves;  and  (3)  reproductive 
part,  consisting  of  flowers,  fruits,  and  seeds. 

The  general  functions  of  the  roots  are  to  absorb  water  and 
plant  food  from  the  soil,  to  feed  the  plant.  The  stem  and  leaves 
have  three  general  functions,  namely:  (1)  To  take  up  the  solution 
absorbed  by  roots  and  evaporate  the  water,  leaving  the  minerals  in 
the  plant  for  food;  (2)  to  take  in  air  and  extract  therefrom  carbon 
for  the  plant,  and  (3)  to  manufacture  the  elements  taken  in  from 
soil  and  air  into  material  for  growth  of  the  plant.  The  reproductive 
organs  perpetuate  the  plant,  producing  the  seeds  or  fruits.  A  large 
share  of  the  materials  manufactured  by  the  leaves  is  stored  in  the 
seeds.  In  the  cereals,  the  seeds  are  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 
plant. 

Elements  Required  for  Growth. — When  a  chemist  analyzes  a 
plant,  he  finds  that  it  is  composed  of  thirteen  elements.  Ten  of 
these  elements  are  taken  from  the  soil  as  follows : 

1.  Nitrogen  4.  Potassium  .7.  Iron  10.  Silicon 

2.  Sulfur  5.  Calcium  8.  Chlorine 

3.  Phosphorus         6.  Magnesium         9.  Sodium 

Only  the  first  seven  of  the  above  soil  elements  are  considered 
essential,  but  the  last  three,  chlorine,  sodium,  and  silicon,  are  always 
present. 

From  the  air  comes : 

11.  Carbon  12.  Oxygen 

5 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW 


From  the  water  may  be  taken : 

13.  Hydrogen.  / 

Oxygen  may  also  come  from  water,  and  probably  both,  hydrogen 

and  oxygen  may  be  taken  up  from  soil  compounds. 

There  are  ten  essential  elements  found  in  all  plants.     All  the  ten 

essential  elements  must  be  present 
or  the  plant  will  not  grow.  This 
is  often  tested  in  laboratories  by 
growing  plants  in  water  and  pro- 
viding only  nine  of  the  elements, 
leaving  out  one.  No  matter  which 
is  left  out,  no  growth  will  take 
place.  In  the  case  of  iron,  only 
the  smallest  trace  is  required,  per- 
haps an  ounce  would  be  sufficient 
for  an  acre  of  wheat,  but  the 
plants  will  not  grow  without  it. 
Plant  Food  Sources. — Most 
of  the  soil  is  an  inert  mass  that 
plants  could  not  live  in,  but 
throughout  this  mass  are  small 
quantities  of  the  essential  ele- 
ments in  the  form  of  compounds. 
By  natural  decay,  these  com- 
pounds slowly  become  soluble  in 
water,  just  as  salt  will  dissolve, 
and  then  in  turn,  the  water  is 
taken  up  by  plant  roots,  the  min- 
erals thus  being  carried  up  to  the 
leaves. 

Carbon   comes   entirely   from 
the  air  in  the  form  of  a  gas.     All 

burning  or  decaying  materials  give  up  carbon  dioxide  gas  to  the  air. 

The  plant  in  turn  is  able  to  extract  this  carbon  from  the  air,  to  build 

up  new  plants. 

Nitrogen  is  taken  from  the  soil  by  most  plants,  but  all  nitrogen 

must  first  come  from  the  air.     Certain  bacteria  living  in  the  soil  can 


Df?Y MATTCft 


FIG.  1. — Diagram  illustrating  the  relative 
proportion  of  dry  matter  and  water  in 
a  green  plant. 


OSMOSIS  7 

take  up  nitrogen  from  air,  and  as  these  bacteria  die  in  the  soil,  they 
thus  constantly  leave  it  richer  in  nitrogen.  Bacteria  of  this  char- 
acter are  associated  with  legumes.,  as  clover  or  peas,  so  that  the  grow- 
ing of  clover  always  leaves  the  land  rich  in  nitrogen. 

Thus,  four  of  the  important  elements  of  plants  come  from  the 
air — oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon — and  six  from  the  soil. 
(Nitrogen,  however,  is  first  combined  in  the  soil.) 

Relative  Composition  of  Plants. — If  100  pounds  of  green  corn 
plants  or  grass  be  thoroughly  dried,  about  80  pounds  of  weight  will 
be  lost,  and  only  20  pounds  of  dry  matter  (Fig.  1)  remain.  Air- 
dry  seeds  or  hay  contain  from  10  to  15  per  cent  water. 

If  the  dry  matter  is  now  thoroughly  burned,  there  will  be  left 
about  one  pound  of  ash.  The  19  pounds  that  went  up  in  the  fire 
represent  what  came  from  air,  while  the  one  pound  of  ash  is  all  that 
came  from  the  soil.  The  ash  represents  about  one  per  cent  of  green 
plants  or  four  per  cent  of  dry  matter. 

HOW   ROOTS  AND  LEAVES   PERFORM    THEIR   FUNCTIONS 

The  Root  System. — The  functions  of  roots  are  to  secure  water 
and  plant  food  elements  from  the  soil,  acting  also  as  an  anchor.  The 
root  system  is  usually  much  more  extensive  than  commonly  sup- 
posed. With  wheat  or  oats,  roots  penetrate  two  to  four  feet  deep, 
being  deeper  on  well-drained,  porous  soils  than  on  compact  or  wet 
soil.  The  lateral  spread  is  usually  greater  than  the  depth,  especially 
with  intertilled  crops,  as  corn  or  potatoes.  Corn  roots  frequently 
spread  four  to  six  feet  laterally. 

New  branch  roots  are  constantly  produced,  so  long  as  the  plant 
is  growing.  It  is  only  the  small  new  roots  that  have  organs,  called 
root-hairs,  for  absorbing  water  directly  from  the  soil. 

Root-hairs. — The  root-hairs  are  very  small,  single-celled  organs, 
produced  in  a  zone  near  the  tip  of  the  new  roots  (Fig.  2).  They 
function  for  only  a  short  time,  then  die  as  the  root  extends,  and  new 
root-hairs  are  produced  near  the  tip.  Water  is  not  absorbed  by  the 
roots,  but  only  by  the  root-hairs.  The  root-hairs  absorb  soil  water  by 
a  process  known  as  osmosis. 

Osmosis. — The  sap  of  the  root-hairs  being  denser  than  the  soil 
water,  the  denser  solution  absorbs  the  weaker.  This  principle  can 
be  demonstrated  with  a  slice  of  potato  or  apple.  Put  a  tablespoonful 


8  HOW  PLANTS  GROW 

of  salt  in  a  glass  of  water,  and  drop  in  the  slice  of  potato.  In  fifteen 
minutes  it  will  be  soft  and  shrunken,  showing  that  some  of  its  water 
has  been  extracted  by  the  denser  salt  solution.  Now  place  the  slice 
of  potato  in  pure  water  and  it  will  soon  recover  its  solid  quality,  due 
to  the  absorption  of  pure  water  by  denser  sap  of  the  potato.  The  piece 
of  potato  can  not  continue  to  absorb,  but  with  plants,  the  roots  con- 
tinue to  take  up  water,  as  it  is  constantly  being  evaporated  by  the 
leaves. 


Fia.  2. — Root-hairs.     On  the  right  is  a  magnified  section  showing  root-hairs  in  contact 

with  soil  grains. 

Evaporation  of  Plant  Water. — The  soil  water  contains  small 
quantities  in  solution  of  all  the  minerals  a  plant  needs,  but  the  solu- 
tion is  so  weak  that  a  barrel  of  soil  water  would  scarcely  contain  a 
spoonful  of  minerals.  Therefore-,  rapid  evaporation  of  water  is 
necessary,  as  large  quantities  of  water  must  be  passed  through  the 
plant  in  order  that  it  may  obtain  sufficient  mineral  food. 

The  amount  of  water  evaporated  varies  with  climate  and  soils, 
but  in  general  it  requires  from  300  to  500  pounds  of  water  to  each 


LEAF  STRUCTURE  9 

pound  of  dry  weight  produced  by  the  plant.  More  water  is  required 
in  a  dry  climate  than  in  a  humid  climate.  At  the  Nebraska  Experi- 
ment Station  corn  was  grown  in  two  greenhouses.  In  one  the  air  was 
kept  very  dry,  and  in  the  other  very  humid.  In  the  dry  greenhouse  it 
required  340  pounds  of  water  to  one  pound  of  dry  weight  produced, 
while  in  the  humid  house  only  191  pounds  were  required.  The  amount 
of  water  has  been  determined  for  several  crops  at  various  times  with 
general  results  about  as  follows : 

Amount  of  Water  Lost  by  Evaporation  and  Transpiration  for  Each  Pound  of 

Dry  Matter1 

Oats  402-665  pounds 

Red  Clover    249-453  pounds 

Barley    262-774  pounds 

Corn   233-400  pounds 

Wheat    225-650  pounds 

LEAVES  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS 

The  principal  function  of  the  leaf  is  to  manufacture  the  raw  food 
elements  taken  into  the  plant  from  soil  and  air,  into  "  plant  foods  " 
or  compounds  that  can  be  utilized  by  the  plant  in  building  up 
tissues. 

Leaf  Structure. — Examine  a  section  of  leaf  under  a  microscope, 
and  it  will  be  seen  to  have  several  rather  distinct  parts  (Fig.  3)  : 
(a)  An  outer  covering,  or  te  skin,"  called  an  epidermis.  This  is 
practically  air- and  water-proof,  (b)  Several  layers  of  cells,  a  part 
being  rather  loosely  grouped  together,  so  as  to  leave  air-spac.es,  and 
thus  provide  for  the  free  interpassage  of  air  among  them,  (c) 
Stomata,  or  air-holes,  in  the  epidermis  or  skin.  These  stomata  allow 
the  free  passage  of  outside  air  into  the  interior  of  the  leaf,  (d)  The 
veins  or  circulating  system.  When  the  water  solution  is  taken  up 
from  the  soil,  it  passes  up  the  stem  through  small  vessels,  which  ex- 
tend to  all  parts  of  the  leaf.  When  the  solution  reaches  the  leaves, 
the  water  is  quickly  evaporated,  leaving  the  plant  food  elements  in 
the  leaf  to  be  manufactured.  (e)  The  chlorophyll  bodies  are 
small  green  bodies  scattered  through  the  leaf,  and  these  have  the 
power  of  absorbing  energy  from  the  sunlight.  The  work  of  the  leaf 
requires  much  energy,  and  this  is  all  derived  from  the  sun.  No  food 

*  American  Society  of  Agronomy,  vol.  iii,  p.  261  (1911). 


10 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW 


can  be  manufactured,  except  in  sunlight,  though  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  strong  artificial  light  will  also  produce  growth. 

Assimilation. — There  are  two  general  classes  of  products  manu- 
factured in  the  leaf,  known  as  protein  compounds  and  carbon- 
hydrogen  compounds.  Protein  compounds  are  all  rich  in  nitrogen 
but  contain  other  elements  as  well.  Carbohydrates  do  not  contain 
either  nitrogen  or  minerals,  but  are  compounds  of  hydrogen,  oxygen, 


M/W£~/?Ai  S+Nt  TffOOfft 


FIG.  3. — Diagram  illustrating  the  assimilation  of  food  materials  by  a  plant.  The  water 
containing  minerals  and  nitrogen  passes  upward  into  the  leaves,  where  it  unites  with  carbon 
and  oxygen.  The  elaborated  plant  food  then  passes  to  all  parts  of  the  plant.  The  upward 
movement  of  water  and  return  flow  of  plant  food  are  through  different  channels.  B  is  an 
enlarged  section  of  leaf  taken  at  point  A.  Note  the  opening  for  air  at  S.  C  is  a  single 
plant  cell  from  the  leaf.  The  dark  spots  are  chlorophyll  bodies. 

and  carbon,  such  as  starch  and  sugar  (Fig.  3).  Hydrocarbons,  or 
fats,  also  contain  only  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  carbon,  but  in  a  more 
concentrated  form.  Fats  and  oils  are  about  2%  times  as  valuable  as 
starch  or  sugar  for  feeding  stock. 

Distribution  of  Manufactured  Products. — When  the  protein 
and  carbohydrate  compounds  have  been  manufactured,  they  must  be 
redistributed  through  all  parts  of  the  plant  and  some  must  be  re- 
turned back  to  the  roots.  The  return  flow  takes  place  through  a 
set  of  vessels  similar  to  the  system  which  carried  the  sap  upward. 


EXERCISES  11 

Therefore,  we  have  a  continual  flow  of  sap  up  from  the  root  to  leaves, 
also  a  continual  inflow  of  air,  containing  carbon  gas,  into  the  leaves, 
where  all  is  manufactured  into  plant  foods  and  then  returned  in  a 
similar  way  to  growing  parts  of  the  plant. 

EXERCISES 

Testing  the  Effect  of  Fertilizers. — Materials:  Nine  6-inch  flower 
pots;  soil;  sand;  greenhouse  or  sunny  window  in  warm  room;  10  grams 
sodium  nitrate;  10  grams  acid  phosphate:  5  grams  muriate  of  potash. 

1.  Select    soil   that   is   of   good   texture    but   known    not   to   be   very 
productive.     Mix  the  soil  with  abo  t  one-half  volume  of  sand.     Fill  the  pots. 

2.  Now  add  the  fertilizing  material  to  each  pot.     The  fertilizer  should 
be  ground  up  fine  and  thoroughly  mixed  into  the  soil. 

3.  Fertilize    as    follows.      (1)   One    gram    sodium    nitrate.      (2)    One 
gram  acid  phosphate.       (3)   One  half  gram  muriate  -f  potash.       (4)   One 
gram  sodium  nitrate;    one  gram  acid  phosphate.      (5)    One  gram  sodium 
nitrate;    one-half  gram  muriate  of  potash.      (6)    One  gram  acid  phosphate; 
one-half  gram   muriate   of   potash.      (7)    One  gram   sodium   nitrate;     one 
gram  acid  phosphate;   one-half  gram  muriate  of  potash.      (8<)   No  fertilizers. 
(9)   Ten  grams  fine  barnyard  manure. 

Planting  Seeds. — If  you  have  a  greenhouse  or  a  good  window  in  a  warm 
room,  use  a  cereal,  as  oats  or  barley,  planting  10  seeds  to  each  pot.  If 
full  light  is  not  available  use  turnips,  planting  10  seeds,  but  thinning  to  5 
plants. 

Observations. — As  long  as  the  plants  grow  well,  make  notes  twice  a  week 
on  following  points: 

Size  of  plants. 

Color — shade  of  green. 

Place  together  all  the  4  pots  having  nitrogen  as  one  element  and  com- 
pare with  rest  for  color  and  size. 

Rank  the  4  containing  nitrogen  in  order  of  growth  and  decide  which  is 
best. 

Rank  the  4  pots  containing  potash. 

Rank  the  4  pots  containing  phosphate. 

Which  element  seems  to  increase  growth  most?  How  is  color  affected? 
From  your  readings,  which  element  is  best  for  increasing  forage  production? 
Grain  production? 

COMPOSITION  OP  PLANTS 

Determination  of  Water. — Take  several  samples  of  green  or  succulent 
plants,  as  corn,  grass,  turnips,  and  potatoes.  Weigh  at  once,  then  cut  up 
fine  with  a  knife.  Spread  on  paper  and  place  in  dry  place  for  one  week. 
Determine  loss  of  water.  .  , 

Then  grind  up  finer  and  place  weighed  portion  in  oven  at  110°  C.  (230° 
F.)  and  dry  for  two  hours.  Determine  second  loss  of  water.  What  per 
cent  of  green  material  was  dry  weight? 

Take  some  air-dry  hay  and  grain  and  grind  very  fine,  then  determine  dry 
weight. 

If  possible,  determine  moisture  in  new  corn  and  old,  dry  corn. 

Identifying  Starch  and  Protein. — It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  get  a 
clear  understanding  of  starch  and  protein.  The  following  exercise  will  help 
to  an  understanding: 

Starch  is  identified  by  the  use  of  iodine,  giving  a  decided  blue  color. 


12  HOW  PLANTS  GROW 

Put  a  little  water  'in  a  test-tube  and  add  a  pinch  of  cornstarch.  Add  a  few 
drops  of  iodine  solution  (a  10  per  cent  solution  is  strong  enough). 

Shave  down  a  corn  grain  from  the  germ  side  and  test  for  starch  by 
applying  iodine  with  a  brush.  Do  all  parts  show  starch? 

Test  other  cereals  for  starch;  also  peas,  beans,  and  slices  of  potato, 
turnip,  beet,  and  carrot. 

Protein  is  identified  by  nitric  acid,  giving  a  bright  yellow  reaction. 
Test  the  same  materials  as  above  for  protein. 

Soak  a  few  wheat  grains  until  soft  and  make  very  thin  slices  with  a 
sharp  razor.  Mount  some  in  iodine  solution  (five  per  cent)  and  others  in 
weak  nitric  acid.  Examine  under  microscope  for  structure  of  cells  and 
location  of  starch  grains  and  protein. 

Mount  a  bit  of  flour  in  each  solution  and  examine.  Is  flour  pure 
starch  ? 

Loss  of  Water  by  Plants. — Grow  a  sunflower  or  castor  bean  plant  in 
a  six-inch  pot.  When  six  to  ten  inches  high,  prepare  for  the  experiment  as 
follows : 

Water  the  plant  well.  Then  cover  the  pot  and  soil  with  a  rubber  cloth 
or  melted  paraffine.  This  will  prevent  all  water  escaping  except  through  the 
plant  leaves.  Now  weigh  the  pot,  and  continue  to  weigh  daily  while  plant 
lives. 

Observe  the  daily  water  loss.     Does  it  vary  from  day  to  day? 

If  a  second  plant  be  prepared  in  a  similar  way,  and  covered  with  an  in- 
verted glass  jar,  the  water  lost  by  the  plant  will  be  collected. 

Moisture  in  Corn. — When,  corn  is  kept  under  different  conditions  its 
moisture  content  will  vary  considerably.  Take  samples  that  have  just  been 
liusked,  or  husked  corn  remaining  in  the  open,  or  corn  from  cribs,  or  corn 
from  a  dry  seed  room.  (Compare  these  samples  as  follows:  Grind  finely  a 
few  ounces  of  each  sample  in  a  coffee  mill.  Weigh  one  ounce  or  one  gram 
of  each.  Then  dry  the  weighed  lots  in  an  oven  without  burning,  and  reweigh 
each.  Determine  the  percentage  of  moisture  by  dividing  the  loss  in  weight 
of  each  sample  by  its  dry  weight.  Moisture  in  other  grains  may  be  de- 
termined in  the  same  way  (Chapter  XXIV). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  principal  parts  of  a  plant  and  tell  briefly  the  functions  of  each. 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  "  element  "? 

3.  How  many  elements  in  a  plant  ? 

4.  Where  does  a  plant  get  them  ? 

5.  How  can  a  plant  get  elements  from  the  soil? 

6.  How  do  plants  get  carbon? 

7.  Have  you  ever  seen  carbon? 

8.  What  is  "  dry  matter  "? 

9.  How  much  dry  matter  in  a  l&le  ( 100  pounds)  of  hay? 

10.  If  you  burn  the  bale  of  hay,  about  how  much  ash  will  remain? 

11.  Where  did  the  ash  come  from? 

12.  Where  did  the  rest  of  the  "  dry  matter  "  come  from? 

13.  How  long  are  plant  roots? 

14.  What  are  root-hairs  and  what  do  they  do? 

15.  Can  you  explain  osmosis? 

16.  Why  must  plants  take  up  so  much  water  from  the  soil? 

17.  How  does  the  water  escape? 

18.  What  do  leaves  do? 

19.  What  is  the  "  plant  food  "  made  by  leaves? 

20.  How  does  it  get  to  other  parts  of  the  plant? 

21.  How  does  protein  differ  from  carbohydrates? 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  PRODUCTION  OF  SEEDS 

Function  and  Use  of  Seeds. — Every  plant  must  be  provided  in 
some  way  with  a  sure  method  of  reproduction,  or  its  kind  would  soon 
pass  out  of  existence.  This  is  especially  true  in  wild  nature,  where 
the  plant  must  care  for  itself,  and  is  subject  to  all  manner  of  competi- 
tion from  other  plants  and  to  adverse  conditions.  Most  of  our  culti- 
vated plants  are  produced  from  seeds,  though  a  few  are  from  cut- 
tings, as  orchard  trees,  or  new  plants  are  produced  by  runners,  as  in 
the  strawberry. 

The  seed  or  fruit  of  plants  is  also  the  portion  which  we  use 
principally  as  food,  for  both  men  and  animals.  The  plant  stores  up 
energy  as  food  for  the  young  plant,  as  in  the  seed  of  wheat  or  the 
tuber  of  potato.  In  certain  root  crops,  as  the  turnip,  food  is  stored 
for  a  time  in  the  enlarged  root,  to  be  later  used  in  the  production  of 
seed.  In  any  case,  we  have  come  to  rely  on  this  stored  food  of  the 
plant,  either  in  the  seed,  tuber,  fruit,  or  root,  as  our  principal  source 
of  food  for  men  and  animals. 

Nature  of  Seeds. — A  seed  may  be  regarded  as  a  young  plant,  in  a 
dormant  state,  with  a  large  supply  of  stored  energy  at  hand  ready 
to  be  used  when  the  time  comes  for  growth. 

The  seed  consists  essentially  of  three  parts :  (1)  The  young  dor- 
mant plants  called  the  germ*.  The  germ  constitutes  5  to  10  per  cent 
of  the  seed.  (2)  The  stored  food,  called  the  endosperm  in  cereals, 
or  cotyledons  in  legumes.  This  part  of  the  seed  equals  about  90  per 
cent.  (3)  The  seed-coats,  a  strong  protective  covering,  equal  to 
about  3  or  4  per  cent  of  the  seed.  In  the  cereals  (wheat),  the 
germ  is  very  rich  in  protein  and  minerals,  and  the  endosperm  is 
mostly  starchy,  while  in  the  legumes  (bean)  the  whole  seed  is  rich  in 
protein  and  starch. 

Preserving  the  Vitality  of  Seeds. — Preserving  the  vitality  of 
seeds  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance  if  good  crops  are  to  be 
produced.  Dry  s.eeds  contain  about  10  to  14  per  cent  moisture.  When 

13 


14  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  SEEDS 

dry,  most  seeds  retain  vitality  for  many  years,  and  are  not  injured  by 
ordinary  freezing  or  even  high  temperatures  up  to  140°  F.  In 
humid  air,  such  as  a  damp  cellar,  or  very  often  sea-coast  climates, 
almost  all  common  seeds  will  deteriorate,  even  when  kept  at  average 
temperature.  They  lose  power  to  germinate  in  a  few  months  to  one 
year.  Free  circulation  of  air  is  necessary  while  seeds  are  drying,  but 
when  they  are  thoroughly  dry  this  does  not  seem  to  be  necessary.  As 
there  are  damp  periods  of  weather  now  and  then,  when  seeds  in 
storage  are  quite  apt  to  take  up  moisture,  it  is  always  well  to  pro- 
vide free  circulation  of  air  in  seed  houses. 

Good  Seeds. — Two  things  are  required  of  good  seeds.  First, 
they  must  have  grown  and  developed  in  a  normal  way,  so  as  to  have 
vigorous  germs  and  a  good  store  of  food.  Second,  the  vitality  must 
be  retained.  All  that  is  necessary  to  preserve  the  vitality  of  seed  is  to 
thoroughly  air  dry  the  seed,  as  soon  as  mature,  and  keep  in  dry 
storage. 

Duval *  took  seeds  of  various  kinds,  mostly  vegetables,  and  stored 
them  in  ordinary  paper  envelopes  and  also  in  corked  bottles.  These 
seeds  were  then  placed  in  storage  in  several  cities,  namely:  Lake 
City,  Fla. ;  Auburn,  Ala. ;  Mobile,  Ala. ;  Baton  Rouge,  La. ;  San  Juan, 
P.  R. ;  Wagoner,  Ind.  Ter. ;  Durham,  N.  H. ;  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.  In 
each  place  they  were  stored  in  three  ways :  (1)  Trade  conditions  or 
ordinary  unheated  rooms;  (2)  dry  rooms,  which  were  dry  inside 
rooms,  artificially  heated,  at  least  part  of  the  time,  and  (3) 
basements. 

The  average  loss  of  germination  after  storage  for  251  days  was  as 
follows : 

Envelopes  Bottles 

Trade  conditions 36.63  3.92 

Dry  rooms   21.19  8.08 

Basements    7 42.28  4.51 

This  shows  that  dry  seeds,  stored  in  such  a  way  as  to  keep  them 
dry,  will  retain  vitality  even  when  stored  in  basements.  However, 
seeds  not  thoroughly  dry,  stored  in  tight  bottles,  deteriorate  very 
rapidly. 

1  Duval,  J.  W.  T. :  The  Vitality  and  Germination  of  Seeds.  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  Bui.  58. 


WHEN  SEEDS  SPROUT  15 

How  Germination  Takes  Place. — The  dry  seed  is  in  a  dormant 
state,  with  all  life  processes  practically  arrested.  When  proper  con- 
ditions are  present,  all  the  life  processes  are  started  anew  and  growth 
begins. 

Before  growth  can  take  place,  three  conditions  are  necessary :  (1) 
There  must  be  sufficient  moisture,  so  the  seed  can  secure  all  it  will 
readily  absorb.  (2)  There  must  be  air  present.  If  the  soil  is  so 
compact  and  filled  with  water  that  no  air  can  reach  it,  the  seed  will 
rot.  Whereas,  pure  oxygen  was  given  off  when  the  plant  developed 
starch  and  stored  energy,  the  plant  must  now  take  up  oxygen  by 
oxidizing  or  "burning"  some  of  the  carbohydrates.  (3)  There 


FIG.  4. — Germination  in  corn.  On  the  left  is  a  kernel  of  corn  before  germination, 
while  the  center  shows  a  similar  grain,  with  the  surface  shaved  off  to  expose  the  germ.  On 
the  right  is  a  kernel  beginning  to  germinate. 

must  be  sufficient  heat.  Some  seeds,  as  clover  or  oats,  will  grow  at 
rather  low  temperature  (40°  to  50°  F.)  and  start  growth  very  early 
in  the  spring.  Other  crops,  as  corn  or  beans,  require  a  higher  tem- 
perature for  best  growth  (70°  to  80°  F.  is  most  favorable),  and 
should  not  be  planted  until  the  ground  is  warm.  When  proper  con- 
ditions for  germination  are  present,  seeds  begin  to  grow  (Fig.  4). 
Certain  active  agents  in  the  seed  (enzymes)  begin  to  diss61ve  the 
stored  plant-food,  converting  starches  into  sugars,  so  they  can  be 
readily  absorbed  by  the  growing  plant. 

When  Seeds  Sprout. — In  two  to  four  days  after  seeds  have  been 
placed  under  favorable  conditions,  the  "  sprouts  "  begin  to  appear. 


16 


THE  PRODUCTION  OF  SEEDS 


The  young  plant  breaks  through  the  seed-coat  and  grows  upward. 
At  about  the  same  time,  three  or  more  roots  in  the  grasses  break 
through  and  grow  downward  (Fig.  5).  For  a  few  days,  the  young 
plant  and  roots  depend  on  the  seed  for  food.  When  the  plant  has 
reached  sunlight  with  its  leaves,  a  new  set  of  true  roots  have  made 
their  appearance  just  below  the  soil  surface,  and  the  plant  is  no 
longer  dependent  on  the  seed  for  maintenance.  When  the  soil  condi- 
tions are  good,  the  plant  is  quickly  established  and  only  a  small 


FIG.  5. — Wheat  grain  in  three  stages  of  germination,  on  the  first,  second  and  third  days 
after  being  placed  in  germinator   (compare  with  Fig.  8). 

proportion  of  the  stored  food  is  actually  required.  When  soil  condi- 
tions are  poor,  the  plant  may  draw  on  the  seed  for  a  long  time.  The 
seed  alone  will  maintain  the  plant  for  two  weeks.  Large  plump  seed 
is  probably  more  important  when  conditions  are  unfavorable,  than 
when  conditions  are  such  that  the  plant  can  quickly  establish  on  its 
own  roots. 

Large  and  Small  Seeds. — Examine  a  handful  of  wheat  or  corn, 
as  harvested,  and  great  variation  in  size  of  seed  will  be  noted.  In 
some  cases,  a  part  of  the  seeds  will  be  very  much  shrunken.  The 
comparative  merits  of  large  and  small  seeds  for  planting  are  often 


STRUCTURE  OF  SEEDS  17 

discussed.  With  corn,  the  experiment  has  been  tried  many  times, 
of  planting  the  large  kernels  from  the  middle  portion  in  comparison 
with  the  smaller  seeds  near  the  ends  of  the  ear.  Very  little  differ- 
ence in  results  is  secured,  as  both  kinds  of  kernels  from  the  same  ear 
have  the  same  hereditary  qualities.  It  appears  also  that  large  and 
small  kernels  from  the  same  plant  of  wheat  carry  the  same  qualities 
and  ability  to  produce.  Seed  grain  is  sometimes  run  through  a  set 
of  screens  to  separate  the  large  seeds  from  the  small.  However,  if 
the  seed  grain  is  good,  sound  grain,  it  is  doubtful  if  it  will  pay  to 
make  such  separation.  This  conclusion  is  based  on  experiments  re- 
ported by  the  Ohio,2  Kansas,3  and  Nebraska  4  Experiment  Stations. 

Shrunken  Seeds. — The  removal  of  shrunken  seeds  may  be  bene- 
ficial where  the  percentage  is  high,  and  the  soil  or  climatic  conditions 
unfavorable.  However,  when  sufficient  seed  is  sown,  it  is  doubtful 
even  if  the  presence  of  more  or  less  shrunken  seed  will  have  much 
effect.  When  cereals  are  sown  at  customary  rates,  so  many  plants 
come  up,  that  weak  or  slow  plants  are  crowded  out  during  the  early 
stages  of  growth.  As  this  natural  selection  is  going  on  every  year  in 
cereal  crops,  they  maintain  their  natural  vigor  and  productiveness 
much  better  than  crops  planted  far  apart,  as  corn  or  potatoes,  and 
thus  relieved  from  natural  competition. 

Structure  of  Seeds. — All  students  should  have  a  knowledge  of 
the  structure  of  seeds  and  the  factors  that  influence  growth. 

The  Food  of  Seeds. — The  seed  is  a  storehouse  of  food  for  young 
plants.  Seeds  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  according  to  the  way 
food  is  stored : 

1.  Food  stored  in  cotyledons,  or  first  two  leaves. 

2.  Food  stored  in  endosperm.  / 

Seeds  of  the  first  class. can  be  known  when  they  germinate  in  the 
soil,  because  the  seed  divides  into  halves,  which  are  firmly  attached  to 
the  young  plant.  In  some  cases,  the  two  halves  of  the  seed  are 
pushed  above  ground,  becoming  the  first  two  leaves.  The  young 
plant,  however,  draws  its  first  food  supply  from  these  leaves. 

Seeds  of  the  second  class  remain  whole  and  below  ground,  as  the 
endosperm  is  only  a  storehouse  of  food. 

2  Ohio  Bulletin  165. 
8  Kansas  Bulletins  59  and  74. 
*  Nebraska  Bulletin  104. 
2 


18  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  SEEDS 

The  two  kinds,  however,  can  be  told  by  examination  of  the  seed 
itself. 

EXERCISES 

Study  of  Seeds  and  Seedlings. — Soak  a  few  seeds  of  beans  and  corn. 
At  the  same  time  start  seeds  of  both  to  germinating;  also  plant  seeds  of 
each  3  inches  deep  in  soil. 

(a)  Take  one  of  the  beans  and  remove  the  skin  and  separate  the  two 
cotyledons. 

Make  a  drawing  (5  times  enlarged)  showing  the  little  plant.  Label 
all  parts. 

Take  a  germinated  seed.     Make  a  drawing  and  label  all  parts. 

Make  a  third  drawing  of  a  plant  grown  in  soil,  about  two  weeks  old. 
Label  all  parts. 


FIG.  6. — On  the  left  a  germinator  made  by  inverting  a  glass  tumbler  on  a  glass  plate. 
The  seeds  are  placed  on  wet  blotting  paper.  On  the  right  a  germinator  made  with  two 
plates  and  blotting  paper. 

(&)  Take  a  corn  grain,  which  has  been  softened  by  soaking,  and  shave 
down  on  germ  side  until  germ  is  fully  exposed. 

Make  drawing  and  label  all  parts. 

Also  make  drawings  of  germinated  seed  and  plant  two  weeks  old. 

(c)  Write  up  a  short  statement  explaining  how  the  plant  lives  while 
developing  its  root  system.  What  are  temporary  roots  and  permanent 
roots  ? 

Germination  of  Seeds. — Germination  tests  are  important,  interesting, 
and  easy  to  make,  if  properly  managed,  yet  very  poor  results  are  often 
obtained. 

The  main  points  to  observe  are  to  keep  the  seed  moist,  and  at  a  tempera- 
ture ranging  from  50  to  80  degrees.  In  general,  it  will  take  only  one-half 
as  long  to  germinate  seed  at  a  temperature  averaging  70  as  compared  with 
a  temperature  of  50  degrees.  There  are  exceptions,  however,  as  a  few  seeds, 
such  as  the  clovers  and  a  few  grass  seeds,  germinate  well  at  the  lower 
temperature. 


EXERCISES 


19 


Apparatus  for  Germination. — Many  homemade  germinators  have  been 
devised,  but  those  here  described  are  recognized  as  best. 

1.  Plate  germinators  are  made  by  using  two  dinner  plates  or  pie  tins 
(Fig.  6).     Two  or  three  layers  of  blotting  paper  or  a  half  inch  of  sand 
covered  by  cloth  are  placed  in  the  bottom  of  one.     Saturate  the  absorbent 
well  and  place  the  seeds  on  top.     Then  invert  the  second  plate  over  the  first, 
being  careful  that  the  edges  fit  well. 

2.  Box  germinators  of  several  types  have  been  devised,  but  the  following 
one  has  many  advantages: 


FIG.  7. — A  box  germinator.     A  tin  box  with  two  sawdust  pads.     Can  be  carried  about. 

Have  a  tin  box  made  12  to  15  inches  square,  with  a  hinged  lid  which 
can  be  fastened  shut  with  hasps.  The  box  and  lid  should  each  be  about 
one  inch  deep.  Make  two  pads  stuffed  with  sawdust.  The  pads  should  be 
the  size  of  the  box  and  an  inch  thick,  so  that  when  put  into  the  box  and 
lid,  and  the  box  closed,  they  will  fill  it  snugly. 

For  germinating  seeds,  first  saturate  the  pads,  then  place  the  seeds 
on  one,  close  the  box  and  fasten.  The  box  should  be  opened  a  few  minutes 
each  day  to  admit  air. 

This  box  has  many  advantages,  as  it  can  be  easily  moved,  placed  in 
any  position,  or  carried  to  and  from  home  or  school  (Fig.  7) . 

Jelly  Glass  Germinators. — Take  jelly  glasses  with  a  loose-fitting  tin  lid. 
If  the  lid  is  snug,  it  can  be  easily  spread  by  reaming  with  a  knife  handle  or 
piece  of  iron.  Place  a  few  pieces  of  wet  blotting  paper  in  the  lid,  scatter 


\ 

20  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  SEEDS 

on  the  seeds,  and  invert  the  jelly  glass  over  them.  One  advantage  of  this 
germinator  is  that  the  progress  of  germination  can  be  observed  from  day  to 
day.  See  also  the  plan  shown  at  left  in  Fig.  6. 

For  class-room  work  it  is  often  useful  to  start  one  of  these  germinators 
each  day  for  a  period  of  10  days,  thus  having  material  for  study  in  all  stages 
of  development. 

Rag  Doll  Germinators. — This  germinator  is  made  by  using  a  strip  of 
flannel,  about  10  inches  wide.  Place  the  seeds  on  one-half,  fold  over  the 
other  half,  then  roll  and  tie  loosely.  Soak  in  water  for  12  hours,  then  put 
in  a  box  or  some  place  where  they  will  remain  damp. 

Seeds  to  Use. — Have  the  pupils  bring  seeds  from  home,  from  the  sup- 
plies that  are  to  be  planted  on  the  farm.  Vegetable  seeds,  grass,  clover,  and 
cereal  seeds  of  all  kinds  will  serve  well.  Old  seeds  as  well  as  new  should  be 
used.  Seeds  from  local  dealers  can  also  be  purchased.  When  the  tests 
are  completed  the  data  should  be  studied  and  analyzed  to  see  if  it  can  be 
determined  why  some  seeds  are  good  and  some  are  poor. 

Comparison  of  Germinated  Seeds. — There  are  several  differences  in 
germinated  seeds  of  cereals  that  few  people  have  observed.  For  this  exercise 
only  good,  strong  seeds  should  be  used,  and  special  care  should  be  exercised 
to  secure  normal,  strong  germination. 

Germinate  seeds  of  all  the  cereals,  and  also  peas  and  red  clover. 

When  well  germinated,  study  10  seeds  in  each  case.  Record  results  in 
tabular  form. 

What  are  the  average  number  of  temporary  roots  in  each  cereal  ? 

State  in  each  case  whether  the  plumule  arises  from  the  germ  end, 
middle,  or  tip  of  the  seed. 

Which  germinates  quickest,  slowest,  etc.? 

In  a  second  experiment  compare  strong  seeds  with  poor  seeds,  and 
compare  on  above  points. 

In  a  third  case  compare  seeds  of  hard  wheat  and  soft  wheat ;  hard  and 
soft  grains  of  barley;  and  kernels  from  ears  of  dent  corn  having  hard, 
flinty  kernels  with  ears  having  starchy  kernels. 

Can  you  explain  why  the  hardness  of  a  seed  should  affect  the  rapidity  of 
germination?  Should  this  be  considered  in  making  comparative  germina- 
tion tests  with  different  ears  of  corn  or  different  varieties  of  wheat?  (See 
also  Chapter  XXXV.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  do  plants  store  food  in  seeds? 

2.  What  other  parts  are  sometimes  stored  with  food? 

3.  What  part  of  plants  do  we  value  most  as  food? 

4.  Name  the  parts  of  a  seed. 

5.  Give  the  function  of  each  part. 

C.  What  is  the  best  condition  for  preserving  the  vitality  of  seeds? 

7.  How  would  you  define  "  good  seeds"? 

8.  Why  is  air  important  in  germination? 

9.  Do  some  seeds  require,  warmer  temperature  for  growing? 

10.  How  long  must  the  young  plant  live  on  the  seed  ? 

11.  When  may  large  and  small  seeds  be  expected  to  give  similar  results? 

12.  When  different  results? 

13.  How  are  weak  plants  eliminated  in  nature? 


CHAPTER  IV 
COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  CEREALS 

IN  the  germination  of  cereals  some  interesting  comparisons  are 
noted.  First,  the  young  roots  appear,  then  the  plumule  or  young 
plant.  In  corn,  wheat,  and  rye  the  young  plant  arises  directly  from 
the  germ,  but  in  oats  and  barley  the  grain  is  enclosed  in  a  husk  and 
the  young  plant  grows  under  the  husk,  emerging  at  the  opposite  end 
of  the  grain  (Fig.  8). 


FIG.  8. — Germinating  oats,  on  left,  and  barley,  on  right.     Note  that  oats  has  three  tempo- 
rary roots  and  barley  six  (compare  with  Fig.  5). 

The  young  roots  are  usually  3  in  number  in  corn,  wheat,  and  oats, 
but  usually  4  in  rye  and  5  or  6  in  barley.  The  number  of  roots  on 
germination  is  not  exact ;  for  example,  in  corn  the  number  may  vary 
from  2  to  5,  but  is  usually  3. 

Temporary  and  Permanent  Roots. — The  first  roots  emerging 
are  called  temporary  roots.  They  only  assist  the  young  plant  while 
it  is  becoming  established,  and  probably  supply  water  mostly  as  the 
young  plant  at  first  lives  largely  on  the  stored-up  food  in  the  seed. 

21 


22 


COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  CEREALS 


The  young  plumule  stretches  upward  and  somewhere  just  below 
the  surface  forms  the  first  node.  The  first  node  usually  forms  about 
the  same  distance  below  the  surface,  and  its  height  above  the  seed 
will  depend  on  how  deep  the  seed  is  planted  (Fig.  9).  This  first 
node  becomes  the' crown  of  the  plant  and  here  the  permanent  roots 
form.  At  this  point  a  number  of  short  nodes  form  and  from  these 


es   a  young  wheat  plant  forming  first  permanent  roots,   near 
surface  of  soil.     (2)   Is  an  enlarged  section  with  leaves  removed  to  show  the  "buds"  or 


FIG.   9.— (1)   Illustrates 


new  tillers  forming.     (3)   Wheat  plant  about  six  weeks  old  with  tillers  developed. 

the  permanent  roots  come  out.  The  roots  are  arranged  in  a  series 
of  rings  about  the  base  of  the  plant.  Just  above  the  roots  come  out 
the  first  leaves  and  first  buds  to  form  tillers.  This  is  characteristic 
of  all  the  cereals,  but  is  most  easily  seen  in  a  corn  plant,  because  of  its 
large  size. 

Tillers. — If  a  young  plant  of  corn  or  wheat  be  examined  when 
about  three  weejcs  old  it  will  usually  have  about  a  half  dozen  leaves 


THE  EAR  OR  HEAD  23 

arising  from  the  crown,  and  if  these  be  carefully  removed  a  small  bud 
will  be  found  at  the  base  of  each  leaf.  These  buds  develop  into 
branches  or  ff  tillers/'  The  number  that  develop,  however,  depends 
on  conditions.  If  the  soil  is  poor  or  cold,  so  growth  is  not  vigorous 
at  first,  perhaps  no  tillers  will  develop,  while  very  favorable  condi- 
tions will  stimulate  the  buds  to  growth.  Hence  we  find  that  on  cold, 
clay  soils  plants  seldom  tiller  so  freely  as  on  warm,  sandy  soils. 
Crowding  the  plants  by  thick  planting  also  suppresses  the  tillers, 
while  thin  planting  favors  them.  Wheat  plants  placed  wide  apart, 
6  to  8  inches  each  way,  on  rich  soil  will  produce  10  to  20  stems  from 
a  seed,  but  under  ordinary  field  planting  not  more  than  2  or  3.  The 
following  data,  from  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station,1  shows  the 
effect  on  tillering  of  oats  with  different  rates  of  planting : 


Pecks  of  seed 
sown  per  acre 

4 

8 

16 

The  Stems  of  Cereals. — The  stem  of  corn  is  filled  with  pith,  but 
in  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley  the  stem  is  usually  hollow,  with  solid 
joints  or  nodes.  However,  in  a  few  wheats,  as  the  spelts,  the  stem 
is  partly  or  entirely  filled  with  pith.  The  number  of  joints  in  corn 
varies  from  about  8,  with  short  early  varieties,  to  12  to  14,  with  tall 
late  varieties.  In  the  small  cereals  4  or  5  nodes  is  the  usual  number. 

One  leaf  arises  from  each  node,  the  largest  leaves  coming  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  plant.  In  wheat  there  are  usually  about 
three  leaves  on  the  stem,  and  in  oats  about  four. 

The  Ear  or  Head. — In  all  the  small  grains  (wheat,  oats,  barley, 
rye)  the  ear  is  borne  at  the  top,  but  in  corn  only  the  tassel  or  male 
flower  is  borne  at  the  top,  while  the  ear  is  borne  on  the  side.  Both  the 
male  and  the  female  flowers  are  borne  in  one  head  (called  perfect 
flowers)  in  the  small  cereals,  but  in  corn  are  separated  in  the  tassel 
and  ear.  Since  all  cereals  are  grasses,  the  structure  of  the  head  and 
flower  is  similar  in  the  main  features,  but  varies  in  details.  To  un- 
.derstand  the  structure  fully  a  careful  comparative  study  of  details 

1  Nebraska  Bulletin  127,  p.  18. 


Tillering  of 

Oats 

Stems  per 

Total  number  of 

100  plants 

stems  per  acre 

46C 

1,419,000 

279 

1,732,000 

140 

2,283,000 

24 


COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  CEREALS 


should  be  made  of  a  typical  grass  first,  and  then  all  the  cereals  in 
comparison. 

The  Spikelet. — The  central  part  of  the  wheat  head  is  called  a 
rachis.  On  the  rachis  are  the  spikelets.  If  the  spikelets  are  attached 
directly  to  the  rachis,  so  a  compact  head  is  formed,  as  in  wheat,  the 
whole  is  called  a  spike.  If  the  spikelets  are  on  long  branches,  as  in 
oats,  the  whole  is  called  a  panicle.  The  typical  grass  spikelet  is  made 
up  of  two  empty  glumes  and  one  or  more  fertile  flowers  above 
(Fig.  10). 


FIG.  10. — Comparative  study  of  spikelets.  From  left  to  right  the  spikelets  shown 
are,  brome-grass,  barley,  rye,  oats,  wheat,  corn.  Below  are  shown  the  two  empty  glumes  in 
each  case.  In  corn  the  glumes  are  much  reduced,  but  a  careful  study  will  show  analogous 
parts  in  all  spikelets. 

The  Flower. — A  grass  flower  consists  of  one  fertile  glume  or 
flowering  glume,  and  palet  enclosing  one  ovary  and  three  stamens. 
A  careful  comparison  will  show  that  all  the  cereals  conform  to  the 
above  description,  except  in  corn,  where  the  stamen  flowers  and  ovary 
flowers  are  separated,  but  are  otherwise  similar. 

Fertilization. — When  the  time  has  arrived  for  the  flower  to  be 
fertilized,  the  glumes  open  and  the  stamens  come  out.  The  pollen  sacs 
burst,  freeing  the  pollen  in  the  air.  At  about  the  same  time  the 
stigmas  spread  out  to  receive  pollen.  When  a  pollen  grain  drops  on 
a  stigma  the  contents  of  the  pollen  grain  immediately  pass  into  the 


CROSS-  AND  SELF-FERTILIZATION 


25 


stigma  and  down  into  the  ovary.  This  is  called  fertilization,  and 
causes  the  ovary  to  immediately  develop  into  a  seed  (Figs.  11 
and  12). 

Cross-  and  Self-Fertilization. — When  the  pollen  produced  by  a 
plant  fertilizes  its  own  ovaries,  we  call  it  self-fertilization.  When 
the  pollen  is  carried  by  the  air  or  by  insects  to  other  plants,  we  call 
this  cross-fertilization. 

In  the  cereals  we  find  barley  is  always  self- fertilized ;  in  fact,  the 
fertilization  takes  place  before  the  heads  emerge  from  the  sheath. 
Wheat  and  oats  are  also  considered  self-fertilized,  but  as  the  head 


Fia.  11. — Diagram  of  a  wheat  flower, 
showing  the  ovary,  with  feathery  stigmas, 
and  the  stamens  or  pollen  sacs  dropping 
pollen. 


FIG.  12. — Ovary  of  wheat  grain.  A  pollen 
grain  caught  on  the  stigma  has  germinated 
and  penetrated  to  the  egg-cell.  The  con- 
tents of  the  pollen  grain  pass  to  the  egg- 
cell,  causing  fertilization.  The  egg  at  once 
grows  into  a  wheat  kernel. 


is  fully  exposed  when  the  fertilization  takes  place  there  occasionally 
happens  a  natural  cross.  In  barley,  wheat,  and  oats  each  ovary 
receives  pollen  from  its  own  stamens  before  the  flower  opens. 

Rye  and  corn  are  cross-fertilized.  In  rye  the  pollen  in  each 
flower  ripens  before  the  stigma  is  ready  and  is,  therefore,  scattered  in 
the  air,  the  stigma  receiving  pollen  from  another  plant  a  day  or  two 
later.  In  corn  the  pollen  is  in  the  tassel  and  is  carried  away  from 
its  own  ear  by  air  currents,  but  in  both  rye  and  corn  at  least  a  few 
seeds  are  usually  self-fertilized.  By  experiment,  it  has  been  shown 
that  self-fertilized  seeds  in  corn  or  rye  will  not  produce  as  strong 


26  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  CEREALS 

plants  as  crossed  seeds,  and  continued  self-fertilization  will  result  in 
dwarf  plants  with  very  low  productivity.  It  is  entirely  different  with 
barley,  wheat,  and  oats,  as  they  are  self-fertilized  with  no  ill  effect 
and  apparently  are  not  benefited  by  crossing. 

Formation  of  the  Seed. — When  the  contents  of  the  pollen  grain 
pass  down  into  the  ovary  they  unite  with  the  egg-cell  in  the  ovary. 
Growth  in  the  ovary  begins  at  once.  One  part  of  the  egg  develops 
into  a  young  plant  or  embryo,  while  another  portion  develops  into  a 
storehouse  of  food  for  the  young  plant  and  is  called  the  endosperm. 


FIG.  13. — Diagram  of  a  corn  kernel  to  show  the  four  principal  parts,  namely,  hull,  aleurone 
layer,  endosperm  or  starchy  portion,  and  germ. 

The  whole  is  called  a  seed,  as  wheat  or  barley  grains.  The  wheat 
grain  is  covered  with  a  seed-coat,  which  is  only  the  remnant  of  the  old 
ovary  after  the  young  plant  and  its  storehouse  have  developed  inside. 
In  milling,  the  seed-coat  is  taken  off  as  bran. 

Composition  of  the  Seed. — The  seeds  of  grasses  are  said  to  be 
starchy,  consisting  in  general  of  75  to  85  per  cent  starch  (Fig.  13). 
The  grain,  however,  can  be  divided  into  four  parts — (1)  seed-coat, 
(2)  aleurone  layer,  (3)  endosperm,  (4)  germ — each  very  different 
in  composition,  and  the  proportion  of  these  parts  affects  the  composi- 
tion of  the  whole  grain. 


COMPOSITION  OF  CEREALS  27 

Proportion  of  Each  Part  and  Composition  in  Corn  a 

Per  , Chemical  composition > 

cent  Pro-  Carbohy- 

of  tein  Oil  Ash      drates 

tvhole  per  per  per        per 

kernel  cent  cent  cent       cent 

Seed-coat,  including  tip  cap.     7.3  4.0  1.1  1.0  93 

Aleurone  layer 11.2  22.0  5.0  1.4  71 

Endosperm 70.3  9.0  0.3  0.3  91 

Germ     11.2  20.0  35.0  10.0  35 

Whole  corn    100.0  11.3  4.0  1.5  82.8 

The  seed-coat  is  high  in  carbohydrates,  but  this  is  mostly  in  the 
form  of  fiber.  The  aleurone  layer  is  rich  in  protein.  The  endosperm 
is  rich  in  starch,  while  the  germ  contains  most  of  the  ash  and  oil  of 
the  kernel  and  is  also  rich  in  protein. 

While  the  above  composition  of  parts  applies  in  a  way  to  all 
cereals,  yet  there  is  much  variation.  For  example,  wheat,  oats,  and 
barley  have  a  smaller  germ  than  corn,  usually  only  4  to  5  per  cent 
instead  of  11  per  cent;  also  they  have  less  seed-coat  and  more 
endosperm. 

Composition  of  Cereals. — While  the  above  table  shows  the  gen- 
eral composition  of  a  cereal  grain  it  can  not  be  said  that  there  is  a 
constant  or  definite  composition,  as  no  two  ears  of  corn  or  samples 
of  wheat  will  analyze  alike.  The  following  table  gives  a  general  sum- 
mary of  analysis  of  the  cereals,  as  compiled  in  United.  States  Bureau 
of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  120,  but  even  this  can  not  be  relied  on  as 
a  final  comparison,  since  other  general  averages  will  vary  from  this. 

Composition  of  Cereals   (Water  Free) — Pounds  Per  100  Pounds 

Pro-  Crude          Carbohy- 

Grain  tein  Fat  fiber  drates 

Oats   13.7  4.3  12.2  66.3 

Wheat    14.2  2.3  2.8  78.7 

Rye 13.4  1.8  2.3  80.2 

Barley    13.3  1.8  5.6  76.0 

Corn 10.0  4.4  2.2  81.9 

Any  particular  sample  may  vary  widely  from  the  above.  For 
example,  different  samples  of  wheat  may  vary  from  9  to  16  per  cent 
protein,  and  corn  may  vary  from  3  per  cent  to  7  per  cent  in  fat,  and 
so  on,  but  in  general  we  consider  oats  and  wheat  to  be  richer  in 

a  Illinois  Bulletin  87. 


28  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  CEREALS 

protein  than  corn  and  barley,  while  corn  and  wheat  are  richer  in 
starches.  Corn  and  oats  are  rich  in  fat.  Oats  and  barley  are  high  in 
crude  fiber,  due  to  the  hull. 

Composition  of  Hard  and  Soft  Grain. — In  all  the  cereals  there 
is  a  great  difference  in  the  hardness  of  grain  in  different  varieties. 
We  have  the  "  hard  wheat "  with  flinty,  hard  grains,  as  the  durum 
wheats  and  northwestern  spring  wheats.  Then  we  have  the  "  soft 
wheats,"  usually  white  or  light  red  in  color  and  showing  a  white, 
starchy  interior.  In  wheats  we  find  that  the  hard  wheats  are  high  in 
protein,  with  13  to  16  per  cent,  while  the  soft  wheats  have  only  8  to 
11  per  cent.  The  same  is  true  in  barley,  ranging  from  8  per  cent 
protein  in  soft  barleys  to  15  per  cent  in  hard  barleys. 

In  corn,  however,  we  have  a  very  different  case.  Corn  is  even 
more  variable  in  hardness  than  wheat,  ranging  from  the  hard  pop- 
corn and  flints  to  the  soft  flour  corns,  but  there  is  no  corresponding 
difference  in  composition.  If  we  take  a  grain  of  dent  corn,  which  is 
made  up  of  both  hard  and  soft  endosperm,  it  has  been  found  that 
there  is  a  difference  in  composition,  the  hard  portion  being  about  2 
per  cent  higher  in  protein ;  but  between  different  types  of  hard  and 
soft  corn  there  is  no  such  general  difference  as  is  found  in  wheat  and 
barley. 

Effect  of  Climate  on  Composition. — Again  we  find  with  wheat 
and  barley  that  in  a  dry  climate  hard  grain  is  produced  high  in 
protein,  but  in  a  humid  climate,  or  one  with  cool  summers,  the  wheat 
is  soft.  Hence  we  find  the  great <e  hard  wheat "  districts  in  the  dry, 
hot  climate  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  while  soft  wheat  is  produced 
in  the  East  and  South.  With  corn,  however,  the  composition  and 
character  of  grain  is  not  apparently  affected  by  climate. 

Little  is  known  about  the  effect  of  climate  on  the  composition  of 
rye  and  oats,  but  it  is  believed  that  rye  should  be  classed  with  wheat 
and  barley,  and  oats  with  corn. 

Moisture  in  Grain. — In  considering  the  composition  of  cereal 
grains  we  have  made  no  reference  to  water  present,  as  grain  is  artifi- 
cially dried  before  analysis.  However,  air-dry  grain  in  a  humid 
climate  contains  from  12  to  1'4  per  cent  water,  and  in  a  dry  climate 
less.  For  example,  in  the  Palouse  Valley,  Washington  State,  during 
the  very  dry  summer  of  1914,  the  wheat  generally  contained  less  than 
5  per  cent  moisture.  Grain  shipped  from  a  dry  to  a  humid  climate 


EXERCISES  FOR  FIELD  AND  LABORATORY  29 

will  gain  in  weight,  or  the  reverse  may  be  true  when  shipped  from 
humid  to  dry  region. 

EXERCISES  FOR  FIELD  AND  LABORATORY 

Comparative  Study  of  Cereals. — All  cereals  are  large  grasses.  All 
cereals  and  grasses  are  similar  in  general  structure.  Every  student  should 
have  a  good  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  at  least  one  cereal.  Corn,  being 
a  large  plant,  lends  itself  well  to  such  study. 

General  Structure  of  Cereals. — Before  completing  the  work,  read  over 
such  parts  of  Chapters  IV  and  VI  as  refer  to  general  structure. 

For  material  use  a  well-developed  corn  plant,  including  roots. 

1.  With  a  sharp  knife,  split  the  plant  from  the  lower  tip  of  the  stem 
to  the  tassel,  in  such  a  way  that  the  buds  and  ear  shanks  are  also  split. 

2.  Make  drawing  of  root  section,  showing  nodes  and  permanent  roots. 

3.  Find  a  section   (split)   showing  a  tiller.     Make  drawing,  being  care- 
ful to  show  how  tiller  is  attached. 

4.  Make  drawing  of  any  node  showing  an  ear  bud.     Indicate  leaf  by 
dotted  lines. 

5.  Make  drawing  of  ear,  shank  and  ear  (split)  with  husks. 

Note  whether  the  number  of  nodes  in  the  ear  corresponds  to  nodes  in 
stalk,  above  ear.  Do  the  husks  correspond  to  leaf  sheaths?  Do  you  find 
evidence  of  the  ear  stem  being. a  side  branch,  "  telescoped  "  into  the  husks? 

C.  Make  drawing  of  whole  plant,  indicating  exact  number  of  nodes  both 
above  and  below  ground.     Indicate  correctly  the  outgrowths  from  nodes,  as 
roots,  buds,  leaves,  and  ears. 
Relation  of  Tassel  and  Ear: 

7.  Sketch  tassel. 

8.  Sketch  pair  of  tassel  flowers  (x2,  i.e.,  double  size). 

9.  Sketch  section  of  central  portion  of  tassel. 

10.  Sketch  cross-section  of  ear. 

11.  Sketch  kernel  showing  chaff  at  base  (x2). 
Write  up  brief  report  as  follows: 

Describe  relation  of  ear  and  tassel.  Relation  of  ear  branch  and  a  tiller. 
How  many  ear  buds?'  Ears?  Leaves?  Husks  on  an  ear? 

Comparing    the    Spikes    and    Flowers. — All    spikes    of   cereals    and 
grasses  are  similar  in  structure,  though  it  may  not  appear  so  at  first. 
Lay  out  in  a  row: 

1.  Spikes  of  grasses,  as  timothy,  rye-grass,  etc. 

2.  Spikes  of  cereals,  as  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  rye. 

3.  Spikes  of  corn,  as  tassel  and  ear. 

(a)   Determine  what  a  spikelet  is,  using  oats  for  this  study.     Draw  all 
the  parts  of  a  spikelet  and  label  same  (drawing  3  times  enlarged) . 
( 6 )   Draw  a  wheat  spikelet. 

(c)  Draw  a  barley  spikelet. 

(d)  Now  isolate  a  spikelet  from  each  of  the  spikes  which  you  have  laid 
out  as  above.     See  if  you  can  identify  analogous  parts  in  each  case. 

Write  a  concise  statement  defining  (1)  spike;  (2)  spikelet;  and  (3) 
flower. 

Compare  the  central  spike  of  a  corn  tassel  and  an  ear  of  corn,  and 
work  out  the  analogous  parts. 

To  what  does  the  hull  of  oats  correspond  in  the  wheat  flower? 

How  many  kernels  per  spikelet  are  usually  found  in  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
rye,  corn,  millet,  brome-grass,  and  rye-grass? 


SO  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  CEREALS 

Further  Study  of  Tillers  and  Roots. — Visit  fields  of  wheat  or  oats  that 
have  been  recently  sown. 

Search  for  plants  in  all  stages  of  development,  from  those  just  coming 
up  to  well-developed  plants  4  or  5  weeks  old. 

Make  sketches  showing  all  stages,  especially  noting  the  development  of 
tillers  and  permanent  roots. 

Does  the  depth  at  which  roots  and  tillers  develop  appear  to  be  affected 
by  depth  at  which  seed  is  sown? 

Do  plants  tiller  more  in  some  parts  of  the  field  than  in  other  places? 
Is  tillering  related  to  richness  of  soil  ?  To  rate  of  planting  ?  To  time  of 
planting? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  germinating  wheat  and  barley  grains  differ  in  appearance? 

2.  Explain  about  the  temporary  and  permanent  roots. 

3.  How  is  the  "tiller  "  related  to  the  main  stem? 

4.  How  does  rate  of  planting  affect  the  number  of  tillers  ? 

5.  What  is  a  node?     An  internode? 

6.  How  do  the  flowers  in  corn  differ  from  those  of  wheat  ? 

7.  Name  the  parts  of  a  wheat  head.     The  parts  of  a  wheat  flower. 

8.  What  is  fertilization? 

9.  Define  cross-  and  self-fertilization. 

10.  Give  examples  of  plants  that  normally  self-fertilize  and  cross-fertilize. 

11.  What  is  the  egg  cell? 

12.  What  part  of  the  seed  is  highest  in  protein?    Oil?    Ash?    Carbohydrates? 

13.  Which  part  do  you  think  would  have  greatest  feeding  value? 

14.  Which  of  the  cereals  are  highest  in  protein?     Fat?     Fiber? 

15.  Do  hard  and  soft  grains  of  wheat  differ  in  color?     Composition? 

16.  How  does  climate  affect  composition  of  wheat?     Barley?     Corn? 


CHAPTER  Y 
CROPPING  SYSTEMS 

Where  Did  Soils  Acquire  Productiveness? — Dig  into  the 
earth  any  place  and  "  bed  rock  "  will  be  found.  Sometimes  bed  rock 
is  exposed  above  the  surface  and  sometimes  buried  under  many  hun- 
dred feet  of  soil.  Originally,  all  the  surface  was  rock,  but  a  portion 
has  been  slowly  and  gradually  reduced,  by  such  agencies  as  glaciers, 
freezing,  and  rain  water  containing  carbonic  acid.  Gradually  as 
this  rock  was  pulverized,  it  accumulated  where  other  agencies,  as 
plants  and  bacteria,  worked  on  it  further. 

Pulverized  rock  might  contain  all  the  minerals  needed  by  plants, 
but  our  common  field  crops  would  not  grow  in  pulverized  rock,  as 
may  be  easily  demonstrated.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this :  First, 
the  minerals  are  not  soluble  in  water ;  and  second,  the  rock  is  devoid 
of  nitrogen. 

How  Rock  Minerals  Become  Soluble. — Rain  water  contains 
some  carbon  dioxide,  which  is  a  weak  acid  and  has  a  slow  solvent 
effect  on  certain  minerals  of  the  soil.  Enough  minerals  would  be 
leached  out  to  support  aquatic  vegetation.  This  aquatic  vegetation 
mixed  with  soil  would  decay  and  produce  organic  acids,  that  in 
turn  would  break  down  the  insoluble  minerals. 

Certain  plants,  as  lichens,  also  live  on  rocks,  and  excrete  acids 
that  liberate  enough  minerals  for  their  own  use.  When  some  or- 
ganic matter  was  finally  mixed  into  sterile  soils,  other  agencies,  such 
as  bacteria  and  a  variety  of  plant  life,  could  live,  and  finally  heavy 
vegetation  could  flourish.  On  our  forest  lands,  trees  have  grown 
for  ages,  and  the  decaying  leaves,  branches,  and  roots  have  added 
large  'quantities  of  organic  matter.  On  the  prairies,  grasses  have 
grown  up,  to  die  on  the  land  each  year.  In  this  way  the  available 
mineral  supply  of  the  soil  has  been  slowly  accumulated. 

Where  Nitrogen  Came  From. — While  nitrogen  was  not  found 
in  the  rock  from  which  soil  was  made,  it  is  the  most  important 'ele- 
ment of  the  air,  constituting  about  four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere,  or 
35,000  tons  over  each  acre  of  land.  Very  small  quantities  of 

31 


32  CROPPING  SYSTEMS 

nitrogen  are  brought  down  by  rainfall,  while  soil  bacteria  fix  rather 
large  quantities  of  nitrogen  taken  from  air  circulating  through  soil. 
These  bacteria  are  the  principal  natural  means  by  which  nitrogen  is 
fixed.  Some  forms  of  these  bacteria  are  associated  with  legumes, 
while  others  are  capable  of  living  in  the  soil  and  fix  free  nitrogen, 
if  organic  matter  is  present.  It  is  not  known  which  kind  have  been 
most  important  in  fixing  the  present  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 
There  is  some  evidence  that  in  certain  soils  in  rather  dry  regions, 
as  Colorado  or  Utah,  soil  bacteria  not  associated  with  legumes  may 
fix  large  quantities  of  nitrogen  from  the  air. 

Nitrogen  Fixed  by  Legumes. — The  nitrogen  is  not  taken  from 
the  air  by  the  legume  plants  as  might  be  implied,  but  only  by  the 
bacteria  found  in  the  nodules  formed  on  legume  roots.  These  bac- 
teria are  short-lived  and,  as  they  die,  their  nitrogen  becomes  avail- 
able to  plants.  Legumes  also  use  any  available  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 

A  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  may  contain  50  pounds  of  nitrogen,  yet  four 
tons  a  season  may  be  removed,  and  still  the  soil  be  richer  in  nitrogen 
than  before.  This  would  indicate  that  an  alfalfa  crop  is  capable  of 
fixing  200  to  300  pounds  of  nitrogen  from  the  air  in  a  season,  or 
forty  to  sixty  dollars  worth  per  acre  based  on  the  commercial  price 
of  nitrogen.  Nitrogen  in  fertilizers  costs  about  twenty  cents  a 
pound. 

In  nature,  there  are  great  numbers  of  wild  legumes  which  have 
been  adding  their  annual  deposit  of  nitrogen  to  the  soil  for  ages. 
This  is  especially  true  in  prairie  regions  and  is  one  reason  for  the 
rich  store  of  nitrogen  in  these  soils. 

Importance  of  Organic  Matter. — A  large  supply  of  organic 
matter  is  important  for  the  following  reasons : 

(a)   By  decaying  in  the  soil,  it  makes  available  plant  food. 

(&)   It  is  necessary  for  the  life  of  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria. 

(c)  The  decayed  organic  matter  itself  becomes  food  for  plants. 

(d)  Vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  helps  to  keep  the  soil  moist  and 
in  good  tilth,  so  it  will  not  become  hard  and  bake. 

From  the  above,  it  would  seem  that  the  most  important  means  of 
keeping  a  soil  productive  without  the  use  of  fertilizers  is  to  maintain 
a  good  supply  of  vegetable  matter,  and  grow  legumes  a  part  of  the 
time  to  keep  up  the  nitrogen  supply  (Fig.  14). 


EFFECTS  OF  CROPPING 


33 


Effects  of  Cropping. — When  the  timber  was  cleared,  or  the 
prairies  were  broken  up,  the  land  was  generally  productive.  After 
the  land  has  been  farmed  40  or  50  years,  the  productiveness  has 
usually  decreased  on  the  average  farm,  so  that  not  more  than  one- 
half  the  corn  or  wheat  is  produced  with  the  same  effort.  A  few 
farms,  that  have  been  well-handled,  will  still  be  productive,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  some  farms  will  be  so  poor  that  the  owners  aban- 
don them. 


FIG.   14. — Plowing  under  rye  for  green  manure. 

The  effect  of  cropping  has  just  reversed  the  work  of  nature.  (1) 
By  the  constant  removal  of  crops,  the  humus  has  been  exhausted  and 
none  returned.  As  a  result,  the  soil  becomes  hard,  dries  out  quickly 
and  there  is  no  longer  decaying  vegetable  matter  to  free  new  sup- 
plies of  minerals.  (2)  Sometimes  one  or  more  minerals  have  been 
exhausted  and  none  returned.  (3)  The  nitrogen  is  exhausted  and 
no  legume  grown  to  return  it.  (4)  The  lime  is  often  leached  out. 

In  most  cases,  the  problem  of  making  this  exhausted  land  pro- 
ductive again  is  to  change  the  farm  practice,  put  back  what  has 


34  CROPPING  SYSTEMS 

been  taken  out  and  adopt  a  cropping  system  that  will  restore  the  land 
to  its  original  condition. 

Some  farms  will  be  found  that  have  remained  productive  under 
good  farm  management  and  other  examples  may  be  found,  where 
unproductive  land  has  been  restored  by  good  cropping  systems. 

Single  Cropping  System. — When  new  land  has  been  broken  up, 
the  general  custom  has  been  at  first  to  grow  principally  only  one  or 
two  kinds  of  exhaustive  crops — usually  the  crops  that  pay  best,  as 
corn,  wheat,  or  cotton.  In  the  newer  lands  of  the  west  (the  Dakotas 
and  Canada),  we  may  find  the  "  wheat  belt,"  where  wheat  has  been 
grown  continuously  for  20  years.  Usually  when  land  has  been  in 
one  crop  for  20  years,  it  no  longer  pays  and  farmers  must  alternate 
crops. 

Alternating  Crops. — East  of  the  wheat  belt,  where  land  has 
been  farmed  40  years,  farmers  have  found  it  necessary  to  alternate 
grain  and  cultivated  crops,  as  wheat  and  oats  with  corn.  This  al- 
ternate cropping  will  maintain  yield  for  a  time,  but  the  humus,  min- 
erals and  nitrogen  slowly  exhaust,  and  it  then  becomes  necessary  to 
restore  these  to  maintain  the  yield. 

Rotation  Farming. — Coming  east  to  still  older  farming  sections, 
as  Illinois  and  Indiana,  all  good  farmers  have  for  years  been  adopt- 
ing rotation  systems,  that  provide  for  alternating  the  cultivated  crops 
and  grain  crops  with  clover  and  grass;  the  clover  and  grass  to  oc- 
cupy the  land  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  the  time.  In  addition, 
effort  is  made  to  return  much  of  the  straw  removed  with  the  crops, 
in  the  form  of  manure,  while  in  the  early  days,  little  or  no  manure 
was  returned.  A  good  rotation  system  will  not  only  restore  produc- 
tivity to  much  unproductive  land,  but  will  maintain  it  for  many 
years.  If  in  addition  to  a  good  rotation,  the  crop  is  fed  to  live  stock 
and  the  manure  returned,  the  land  may  be  kept  up  almost  in- 
definitely. 

What  the  Rotation  Does. — The  rotation  of  crops  (1)  main- 
tains the  humus  supply;  (2)  restores  nitrogen;  (3)  alternates 
crops,  having  different  root  systems  and  habits  of  growth ;  (4)  helps 
control  weeds,  fungus  diseases,  and  insects. 

( 1 )  If  land  is  continually  sown  to  grain  crops,  the  humus  supply 
of  the  soil  will  decrease.  Constant  stirring  of  soil  causes  the  oxida- 


ROTATIONS  DO  NOT  KEEP  UP  MINERAL  SUPPLY          35 

tion  or  "  burning  out  "  of  humus.  If  the  same  land  is  sown  to  grass, 
the  humus  supply  will  be  maintained  or  increased.  With  manure  on 
grass,  the  humus  may  be  increased. 

(2)  Experience  indicates  that  where  clover  is  grown  once  in  four 
years,  the  nitrogen  supply  can  often  be  maintained,  even  when  the 
clover  is  not  plowed  under. 

(3)  Plants  having  quite  different  root  systems,  as  legumes,  root 
crops  which  have  deep  tap  roots,  and  grains  having  fibrous  roots, 
may  live  on  the  same  land  with  less  competition  than  when  all  have 
similar  root  systems.     The  same  is  probably  true  of  plants  having 
different  habits  of  growth,  as  wheat,  which  grows  principally  in  early 
summer,  and  corn,  which  grows  in  late  summer. 

(4)  Most  weeds  that  trouble  grain  crops  are  destroyed  when 
the  land  is  put  to  grass.     Most  weeds  are  easily  controlled  under  rota- 
tion.    Certain  injurious  insects  may  become  abundant  when  the 
land  is  in  the  same  or  similar  crops.    For  example,  corn  root  worms 
live  only  on  corn  roots,  and  may  accumulate  in  great  numbers  when 
the  land  has  been  in  corn  for  several  years,  but  all  are  destroyed  when 
the  land  is  put  in  some  other  crop  a  few  years.-    In  the  same  way, 
some  plant  diseases  are  controlled  by  changing  crops. 

Aside  from  maintaining  productivity,  rotations  help  in  other 
ways  by  distributing  the  labor,  and  decreasing  chance  of  total  loss  of 
crop  in  bad  crop  years. 

Rotations  Do  Not  Keep  Up  Mineral  Supply. — While  a  well 
managed  rotation,  with  manure,  may  keep  up  the  humus  and 
nitrogen,  it  will  not  keep  up  the  minerals.  In  fact,  it  may  exhaust 
minerals  faster  than  single  cropping,  .since  a  30  bushel  crop  of  wheat 
removes  more  minerals  than  a  15  bushel^crop,  and  nothing  is  done  in 
a  mere  rotation  to  return  minerals. 

In  most  cases,  the  soil  was  well  exhausted  of  at  least  some  mineral 
element  before  rotation  was  adopted.  Ultimately  on  most  soils, 
minerals  must  be  supplied  in  some  form.  In  the  oldest  farmed  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  namely,  the  New  England  States,  rotations  are 
no  longer  sufficient  and  farmers  find  it  necessary  to  add  some  min- 
erals in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers.  The  lime  is  especially 
low,  due  to  leaching,  and  must  be  added  to  most  of  these  soils  for  best 
results. 


36 


CROPPING  SYSTEMS 


Some  Results  With  Rotations. — A  good  example  of  the  effect 
of  rotation  on  crop  production,  in  comparison  with  continuous  crop- 
ping to  one  crop,  is  shown  in  the  following  data  from  the  Ohio 
Experiment  Station.  In  the  year  1894,  two  similar  fields  were  laid 
out  in  plats.  On  one  field  wheat  has  been  grown  continuously,  a 
part  of  the  plats  with  fertilizer  and  a  part  without.  On  the  second 
field,  a  five-year  rotation  was  laid  out,  consisting  of  corn,  oats,  wheat, 
clover,  and  timothy.  These  plats  were  repeated,  so  wheat  was  har- 
vested every  year. 

Continuous  Vs.  Five-Year  Rotation  With  Wheat  1 


System 

Treatment 

Average  annual  yield  per  acre  five-  Difference  fi:st  and 
year  periods.    Bushels'                    third  periods 

First 

Second 

Third 

Continuous 
Rotation 
Continuous 
Rotation 

Fertilized 
Fertilized 
None 
Noi\e 

19.78 
20.53 
10.8 

9.28 

21.90 
27.46 
8.41 

8.55 

17.41 
33.10 
6.19 
13.66 

-2.4 
+  12.6 
-4.2 

+4.4 

In  the  continuous  wheat,  the  fertilizer  was  applied  every  year, 
while  in  the  rotation,  fertilizer  was  only  applied  to  part  of  the  crops. 
The  average  annual  application  was  as  follows  : 


System 


Continuous    160 

Eotation    .  64 


100 
52 


Nitrate 
of  soda, 
pounds 

160 
96 


Only  about  half  as  much  fertilizer  was  used  per  year  with  the 
rotation  crops,  but  wheat  was  one  of  the  crops  fertilized. 

In  both  cases,  yield  of  cr5p  decreased  under  continuous  cropping, 
even  when  heavy  fertilizer  was  added.  Yield  has  slowly  increased 
under  rotation  farming,  even  without  fertilizer. 

Applying  Fertilizers. — It  has  been  mentioned  several  times  that 
nitrogen,  phosphates,  and  potash  are  the  three  elements  that  soils  are 
most  likely  to  be  deficient  in.  When  a  fertilizer  contains  the  above 
three  elements  it  is  called  a  complete  fertilizer.  A  2-8-3  fertilizer 
means  that  2  pounds  of  nitrogen,  8  pounds  of  available  phosphoric 

^hio  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  231,  p.  12,  1911. 


AMOUNT  OF  FERTILIZER  APPLIED 


37 


acid,  and  3  pounds  of  potash  are  carried  per  100  pounds  of  fertilizer. 
Amount  of  Fertilizer  Applied. —  No  attempt  is  made  to  apply 
enough  fertilizer  to  furnish  all  the  crop  needs,  as  the  crop  will  secure 
part  of  its  elements  from  the  soil.  Xor  are  the  elements  applied  in 
the  same  proportion  required  by  the  crop,  as  the  soil  is  usually 
most  deficient  in  only  one  element.  Phosphorus  is  the  element  most 
often  needed  by  grain  crops.  The  Indiana  Experiment  Station  rec- 
ommends a  2-8-4  -  fertilizer  for  wheat,  in  that  state,  and  the  follow- 
ing table  illustrates  the  relation  between  the  composition  of  a  20- 
bushel  crop  of  wheat  and  100  pounds  of  the  fertilizer.3 

Fertility  Removed  Compared  With  That  Supplied 


• 

Pounds  N 
(nitrogen) 

Pounds  P2O5 
(phosphoric  acid) 

Pounds  K2O 
(potash) 

Removed 
Grain  
Straw  

20.76 
10.32 

11.52 
3.12 

4.20 
17  76 

Total  
Supplied  by 
100    pounds   2-8-4   fer- 
tilizer .  . 

31.08 
2.00 

14.64 
800 

21.96 
4  00 

Deficiency  

29.08 

6.64 

17  96 

Most  cereals  require  fertilizers  rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  while  root 
crops  and  legumes  require  a  higher  proportion  of  potash,  and  grass 
crops  require  nitrogen  mostly.  The  following  proportions  are  typical 
examples : 

Grain    crops    2-S-4  to  3-8-  5 

Root  crops 2-6-6  to  4-8-10 

Grass  crops   4-6-9  to  9-4-  6 

The  amount  applied  varies  ordinarily  from  100  to  300  pounds  per 
acre.  Each  farmer  must  work  out  the  problem  by  experience  on  his 
own  land. 

Ordinarily,  a  complete  fertilizer  is  used,  but  often  only  a  single 
element,  as  phosphorus  or  potash,  is  all  that  is  needed. 

2  The  formula  thus  given  expresses  the  fertilizers  in  percentage  in  the 
order  given  in  the  above  table. 

3  Indiana  Experiment  Station  Circular  23,  p.  22. 


38  CROPPING  SYSTEMS 

Lime. — A  very  large  proportion  of  the  land  in  the  eastern  hall 
of  the  United  States  is  benefited  by  lime.  This  is  especially  true  ol 
the  land  originally  in  heavy  timber,  outside  the  distinct  limestone 
regions.  Usually,  from  1000  to  2000  pounds  per  acre  of  burnt  lime 
is  applied,  or  its  equivalent  in  hydrated  or  ground  limestone.  The 
equivalents  are : 

Burnt  lime   . 56  pounds 

Hydrated  lime 74  pounds 

Ground  limestone   100  pounds 

The  lime  is  best  applied  with  a  lime  spreader,  but  is  often  spread 
with  a  shovel.  Lime  may  be  applied  at  any  time  when  there  is  no 
crop  on  the  land. 

When  Fertilizers  Are  Applied. — Fertilizers  are  more  com- 
monly applied  to  wheat,  potatoes  and  grass  than  to  other  common 
farm  crops.  Ordinarily,  oats,  corn,  and  clover  do  not  respond  suf- 
ficiently to  fertilizers  to  pay  for  direct  applications  to  these  crops. 
Corn,  potatoes,  and  grass  make  relatively  better  use  of  manure  than 
other  crops,  and  the  barnyard  manure  is  most  profitably  applied  to 
'these  crops. 

In  a  typical  rotation  consisting  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover,  and 
timothy  for  one  or  more  years,  the  common  practice  is  to  apply 
fertilizer  to  the  wheat,  and  again  fertilizer  to  the  grass,  after  the 
first  year.  If  manure  is  available,  the  best  place  to  put  the  manure 
is  on  the  grass,  the  last  year  before  breaking  up.  The  grass  is  thus 
benefited  one  year,  and  the  corn  crop  following  is  benefited  about  as 
much  as  though  the  manure  were  applied  directly  to  this  crop. 

On  wheat,  the  fertilizer  is  usually  applied  at  the  time  wheat  is 
seeded,  by  means  of  a  wheat  drill  with  fertilizer  attachment.  On 
grass,  the  fertilizer  is  applied  with  the  same  tool,  or  a  regular  fer- 
tilizer spreader,  about  two  weeks  after  spring  growth  starts. 

BARNYARD  MANURE 

Amount  Made  by  Animals  and  Value. — Professor  Eoberts,  of 
Cornell,  compiled  data  showing  the  amount  and  value  of  manure 
made  by  various  farm  animals.  He  estimated  the  value  by  charging 
the  price  paid  for  the  nitrogen,  phosphate,  and  potash,  in  commer- 
cial fertilizers.  However,  in  addition  to  the  minerals,  manure  adds 


CARING  FOR  MANURE 


39 


valuable  humus  to  the  soil.  For  convenient  comparison,  the  amount 
of  manure  produced  is  uniformly  based  on  1000  pounds  live  weight 
of  the  animals. 

Manure  Per  1000  Pounds  of  Live  Weight* 


Excre- 
ment per 
year 

Manure 
and 
bedding 
per  year 

Nitrogen 
per  year 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid  per 
year 

Potash 
per  year 

Value 
per  year 

Value 
per  ton 

Horse  
Cow.          .... 

Tons 
8.9 

13.5 

Tons 
12.1 
14.6 

Pounds 

153 
137 

Pounds 

81 
92 

Pounds 

150 
140 

Dollars 

42.15 
39.00 

Dollars 
3.48 

2.74 

Sheep  

6.2 

9.6 

175 

88 

133 

46.05 

4.80 

Calf  

12.4 

14.8 

150 

105 

102 

40.35 

2.72 

Pig  

15.3 

18.2 

331 

158 

130 

80.60 

4.43 

Fowls 

4.3 

4.3 

293 

119 

72 

68.15 

15.85 

Nitrogen  figured  at  20  cents  and  other  constituents  at  5  cents  per  pound. 

In  regions  where  farmers  raise  high-priced  truck  crops,  and  buy 
large  amounts  of  fertilizers,  they  sometimes  pay  as  high  as  $2.50  per 
ton  for  manure.  Add  to  this  the  cost  of  hauling  and  they  pay  close 
to  the  above  estimated  value. 

When  commercial  fertilizers  alone  are  used,  it  is  necessary  to  plow 
under  green  crops  occasionally  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  vegetable 
matter.  With  manure  alone,  the  productiveness  of  land  may  be  kept 
up  indefinitely. 

When  crops  are  fed  to  live  stock,  about  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the 
nitrogen  and  mineral  elements  is  recovered  in  the  manure. 

Many  farmers  do  not  care  for  the  manure  properly.  If  manure 
is  leached  by  rains,  or  piled  up  and  allowed  to  heat,  more  than  half 
the  value  is  readily  lost. 

Caring  for  Manure. — The  best  way  to  handle  manure  is  to 
spread  it  on  the  land  as  made.  If  piled  up,  care  must  be  exercised 
to  prevent  heating,  and  it  should  be  protected  from  rains.  Some 
farmers  mix  a  little  land  plaster  with  the  manure  as  made,  which 
prevents  nitrogen  from  escaping.  Farmers  having  land  that  is  bene- 
fited by  the  use  of  phosphate,  find  it  profitable  to  mix  ground  phos- 
phate rock  or  acid  phosphate  with  the  manure  as  made.  The  usual 
rate  is  about  30  to  40  pounds  of  phosphate  rock  to  a  ton  of  manure. 
This  is  an  excellent  way  of  applying  phosphate  to  land. 

4  Warren's  Elements  of  Agriculture,  p.  139. 


40  CROPPING  SYSTEMS 

\ 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  rock  become  productive  soil? 

2.  Where  did  the  organic  matter  come  from  ? 

3.  How  did  soils  acquire  their  nitrogen  supply? 

4.  Why  are  legumes  so  important? 

5.  Why  is  organic  matter  so  important  ? 

6.  What   appear   to   be   the   direct   effects   of   continuous    cropping   on   a 

productive  soil? 

7.  Can  deterioration  be  avoided? 

8.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  single  cropping;     alternate  cropping;    and 

rotation  cropping. 

9.  Name  some  good  rotations. 

10.  What  factors  in  productivity  does  rotation  maintain? 

11.  What  does  rotation  fail  to  maintain? 

12.  State  in  brief  results  obtained  at  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 

13.  What  is  a  "complete"  fertilizer? 

14.  Does  the  chemical  composition  of  a  crop  indicate  the  kind  of  fertilizer 
i        to  apply? 

15.  Give  composition  of  typical  fertilizer  mixtures. 

16.  What  are  the  three  forms  of  agricultural  lime  and  how  do  they  differ? 

17.  Which  crops  respond  best  to  fertilizer  and  which  to  manure? 

18.  How  is  the  value  of  manure  made  by  one  animal  determined? 

19.  How  much  of  the  plant  food  is  recovered  in  the  manure? 


CHAPTER  VI 
CORN 

Where  Corn  is  Produced. — Almost  three-fourths  of  the  world's 
corn  crop  is  produced  in  the  United  States,  and  more  than  three- 
fourths  in  the  North  American  continent,  as  shown  by  the  following 
table : 

Percentage  of  World's  Corn  Crop  Produced  by  Continents1  (1906-1910) 

-,  Percentage  of 

Continent  world's  crop 

North  America   78.09 

Europe    15.08 

South  America 4.20 

Africa 2.35 

Australia 28 

Of  the  corn  produced  in  North  America,  less  than  five  per  cent 
of  the  world's  crop  is  produced  in  Canada  and  Mexico,  so  that  the 
United  States,  for  the  period  1906-1910,  produced  73.39  per  cent 
of  the  world's  crop. 

The  Corn  Belt. — Seven  adjacent  states  produce  more  than  one- 
half  or,  to  be  exact,  58  per  cent  of  the  corn  crop.  These  states  are 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Missouri. 
Fig.  15  shows  the  average  distribution  of  corn  for  the  country. 

The  two  principal  reasons  for  the  high  production  of  this  crop 
in  the  corn  belt,  are  the  favorable  climate  and  soil.  Corn  requires  a 
sunshiny  climate  and  plenty  of  rainfall.  In  this  region,  rainfall  is 
heaviest  during  the  summer  months,  while,  at  the  same  time,  there 
is  a  large  percentage  of  bright  clear  days.  The  land  is  also  level, 
well-adapted  to  corn  culture,  and  suited  to  the  use  of  machinery. 

A  second  reason  for  so  much  corn  in  this  region,  is  that  there  is . 
no  competing  crop  that  farmers  cultivate  as  profitably.  In  the  Gulf 
States,  corn  may  also  be  raised  at  a  reasonable  cost,  but  there  it  must 
compete  with  the  cotton  crop,  while  in  the  northeastern  states  the 
hay  crop  is  more  valuable. 

1  Asia  produces  a  small  amount  of  corn,  but  no  available  data. 

41 


42 


CORN 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  CORN 


43 


The   Leading   Corn    States. — The   ten   leading   corn    States 
arranged  according  to  rank  are  as  follows : 

Ten  Leading  Corn  Producing  States.    Average  for  5  Years  (1906-1910) 


State 

Production, 
bushels 

Acreage 

Value,  dollars 

Average 
yield 
per  acre 

Average 
price  per 
bushel 

Illinois 

355  907  917 

9  776,777 

160  243  010 

34  5 

43 

Iowa 

323  292  400 

9,275,400 

135,266,400 

32  3 

39 

Missouri 

222  421,700 

7,401,200 

107,606,710 

286 

45 

Nebraska  
Indiana  

201,315,100 
174,940,953 

7,421,800 
4,716,756 

81,986,185 
79,616,951 

27.4 
34.7 

38 
43 

Kansas  

166,223,800 

7,585,800 

75,326,000 

22.4 

42 

Texas  

145,764,156 

6,823,531 

87,194,878 

19.0 

59 

Ohio  

139,602,600 

3,630,200 

71,442,910 

35.6 

48 

Oklahoma  
Kentucky  

111,155,518 
93,633,675 

5,052,917 
3,359,414 

50,494,408 
50,842,339 

24.2 
26.7 

44 
51 

The  Origin  of  Corn. — All  cultivated  plants  have  been  developed 
from  some  wild  form.  The  .cultivated  plants  have  been  selected  and 
changed,  so  that  in  many  cases  they  do  not  bear  a  close  resemblance 
to  the  original  wild  forms.  Certain  parts  of  the  plant,  however,  are 
apt  to  remain  unchanged,  so  that  botanists  can  determine  its  close 
wild  relatives. 

There  are  two  wild  semi-tropical  plants  similar  to  corn.  These 
are  known  as  Gama  grass  (Tripsacum  dactyloides)  and  teosinte 
(Euchlcena  Mexicana).  Both  are  found  growing  in  Mexico  and 
southern  United  States.  The  teosinte  will  cross  with  corn,  which 
indicates  its  close  relationship  (Fig.  16).  Gama  grass  is  more 
slender  than  corn,  but  bears  a  tassel  at  the  top,  resembling  a  corn 
tassel.  The  seeds  are  borne  in  the  tassel,  instead  of  an  ear  on  the 
stalk.  The  teosinte  is  much  more  like  corn,  and  bears  a  kind  of 
branched  ear. 

There  is  good  evidence  that  corn  was  developed  by  evolution  from 
teosinte  or  a  near  relative,  and  that  this  origin  probably  occurred  in 
Central  Mexico.  From  Mexico,  it  probably  spread  to  South  America 
and  North  America.  When  Columbus  came  to  America,  corn  was  in 
common  cultivation  throughout  both'  continents.  Columbus  and 
other  travelers  after  him  carried  corn  to  Europe,  where  it  was  called 
maize  and,  later,  Indian  corn. 


44 


CORN 


FIG.  16. — Coyote  corn,  a  form  found 
growing  wild  in  Mexico.  Has  also  been 
produced  artificially  by  crossing  teosinte 
and  corn.  (U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture.) 


The  word  corn  is  used  in  Europe 
for  all  cereals,  as  wheat  and  barley, 
and  the  name  "  Indian  corn " 
serves  to  distinguish  maize  from 
the  other  grains.  In  the  United 
States,  the  name  corn  is  correct  and 
has  attained  legal  standing. 

Classification  of  Corn. — There 
are  six  principal  types  of  corn. 
These  types  are  pop-corn,  flint  corn, 
dent  corn,  soft  corn,  sweet  corn,  and 
pod  corn  (Figs.  17  and  18).  The 
classification  is  based  principally 
on  the  character  of  the  kernel. 
Pop-corn  is  very  hard  and  flinty 
in  character;  the  flint  corn  kernel 
is  similar,  but  larger,  and  contains 
some  soft  starch  in  the  center ;  the 
dent  corn  kernel  is  about  one-half 
hard  and  one-half  soft  starch,  while 
the  soft  corn  is  entirely  soft  starch. 
Of  course,  there  are  intermediate 
stages  between  each  class,  so  that 
practically  a  perfect  series  is  found, 
from  the  hard,  flinty  pop-corn  to 
the  soft,  flour  corn.  Growers,  how- 
ever, have  usually  selected  those 
named  above  for  the  distinct  types, 
so  there  are  not  many  of  the  inter- 
mediate kinds  in  cultivation. 

Sweet  corn  and  pod  corn  may  be 
variations  from  any  of  the  above 
four  types.  Sweet  corn  is  any  kind 
that  lacks  the  factor  for  converting 
its  sugars  to  starches,  so  it  stores  its 
kernels  with  sugar-like  compounds. 
The  pod  corn  may  be  any  of  the 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  CORN 


8* 

0$ 

<^3 

SKI- 


ii 


22 

&-s 

S'? 
w  a 

'-I 


CORN 


58 

ll 
5 


SWEET  CORN  47 

above  varieties,  with  a  tendency  to  develop  the  small  scales  at  the 
base  of  each  kernel  into  large  size. 

The  relationship  of  the  six  types  may  be  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing: 

1.  All  hard  starch — pop-corn  5.  Sweet  corn,   any  kind  that  does 

2.  All  hard  but  center — flint  corn  not  develop  starch. 

3.  Crown  of  soft  starch — dent  corn  6.  Pod  corn,  any  kind  that  develops 

4.  All  soft  starch — soft  corn  glumes  or  "  pods." 

Pop-corn  (Zea  Mays  everta). — Very  hard  corneous  endo- 
sperm ;  kernels  small.  Popping  quality  due  to  the  explosion  of  moist- 
ure on  the  application  of  heat.  The  kernel  is  so  hard  that  the 
moisture  is  retained  until  it  reaches  high  temperature.  There  are 
two  types  of  pop-corn  known  as  rice  corn,  with  pointed  kernels,  and 
pearl  pop-corn,  with  round  kernels.  All  common  colors  and  size  of 
ears  vary  from  2  to  7  inches  in  length.  Rows  8  to  16.  Tom  Thumb 
pop-corn  is  the  smallest  variety  of  corn  grown. 

Flint  Corn  (Zea  Mays  indurata). — Horny  outside,  and  soft 
starch  in  center.  Kernels  usually  rounded,  though  some  varieties 
have  short  flat  grains.  Flint  corn  is  adapted  to  cooler  climates  and 
higher  altitudes  than  dent  corn  and  is  therefore  the  principal  variety 
of  corn  in  climates  too  cool  for  dent  corn.  Length  of  ear  varies  from 
6  to  14  inches ;  rows  6  to  14 ;  all  colors. 

Dent  Corn  (Zea  Mays  indentata). — Horny  starch  on  sides  and 
soft  starch  in  center.  The  soft  starch  shrinks  in  drying,  thus  giving 
the  dent.  The  plant  varies  in  height  from  5  to  18  feet,  the  ear  varies 
in  length  from  6  to  12  inches,  and  has  8  to  24  rows.  Practically  the 
only  type  cultivated  in  the  corn  belt. 

Soft  Corn  (Zea  Mays  amylacea). — Sometimes  called  flour 
corn.  Endosperm  composed  of  all  soft  starch.  Kernels  shaped  like 
flint  corn;  all  colors,  but  white  and  blue  most  common.  Ears  are 
6  to  10  inches  in  length  and  mostly  8-  to  12-rowed. 

Sweet  Corn  (Zea  Mays  saccharata). — Translucent,  horny  and 
wrinkled  kernels.  Sweet  corn  develops  very  little  or  no  starch,  ap- 
parently being  any  type  of  corn  lacking  the  factor  for  converting  its 
sugars  into  starch.  Has  sweeter  taste  than  other  corns. 

Other  types  of  corn,  but  much  more  rare,  are  Coyote  corn  (Zea 
Mays  canina),  Zea  Mays  japonica,  a  variety  with  striped  leaf;  Zea 


48  CORN 

Mays  hirta,  leaves  and  stem  covered  with  hairs ;  Zea  Mays  curagua, 
a  form  having  a  serrate  leaf;  and  Chinese  maize,  a  form  having  a 
waxy  instead  of  a  starchy  endosperm. 

Number  of  Varieties. — In  1898,  Professor  E.  L.  Sturtevant 
published  a  description  of  507  varieties,  though  he  thought  that  in 
many  cases  the  same  variety  had  more  than  one  name,  there  being 
163  synonyms.  He  classified  the  varieties  into  the  following  natural 
groups : 

Dent  corns   323  varieties 

Flint  corns 69  varieties 

Sweet  corns  63  varieties 

Soft  corns    27  varieties 

Pop-corns    . 25  varieties 

Growth  and  Development  of  Parts. — If  a  young  plant  six 
inches  high  is  taken  up  and  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  all  the 
principal  parts  of  the  plant  have  begun  development.  Cut  the  plant 
in  two  lengthwise:  In  the  center  is  a  short  stem.  Note  that  the 
stem  is  divided  by  nodes  very  close  together.  While  the  stem  at  this 
stage  may  not  be  more  than  one  or  two  inches  long,  some  12  to  20 
cross  nodes  (or  the  full  number  when  mature)  may  be  made  out  by 
careful  examination. 

From  the  very  lowest  nodes  on  the  base  of  the  stem,  roots  have 
been  thrown  out.  From  the  upper  nodes  leaves  are  developing. 
The  full  number  of  leaves  may  be  counted  at  this  time. .  At  the  very 
tip  of  the  little  stem,  an  embryonic  tassel  can  be  seen.  Inside  each 
leaf  may  be  seen  a  very  small  bud.  Note  that  all  parts  of  the  plant, 
roots,  leaves,  buds,  arise  from  the  nodes.  Now  as  the  plant  grows, 
the  stem  between  the  nodes  (internodes)  simply  lengthens,  stretching 
out  the  entire  length  of  the  stem  like  a  telescope.  At  the  same  time 
all  parts  of  the  plant  grow  in  size,  but  no  new  parts  are  formed. 

When  the  plant  has  attained  some  size,  one  or  two  of  the  buds  near 
the  base  of  the  stem  may  begin  very  rapid  growth  and  develop  into 
tillers  or  suckers.  A  little  later  one  of  the  buds  from  near  the 
middle  of  the  plant  will  develop  into  an  ear. 

The  stem  is  divided  by  nodes.  The  number  of  nodes  varies  with 
the  height  of  plant.  In  northern  latitudes  the  number  above  ground 
is  about  10  and  the  height  of  stalk  6  feet,  while  in  the  south,  plants 
12  to  15  feet  high  have  18  to  20  nodes,  and  a  corresponding  number 
of  leaves  in  each  case. 


THE  EAR  49 

Tillers  or  suckers  come  from  buds  developed  at  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  If  conditions  are  unfavorable,  these  buds  may  simply  remain 
dormant,  but  if  the  soil  is  rich,  or  planting  thin,  one  or  more  may 
develop.  Some  varieties  naturally  produce  more  tillers  than  others. 
Sweet  corns  and  flint  corns  produce  more  tillers  than  dent  varieties. 

The  Roots. — When  a  seed  of  corn  germinates  a  few  temporary 
roots  are  first  developed.  These  do  not  grow  very  large  and  appear 
to  function  only  while  the  young  plant  is  establishing.  When  the 
young  plant  reaches  sunlight  with  its  leaves,  it  begins  at  about  the 
same  time  to  develop  permanent  roots.  These  are  thrown  out  at  the 
base  of  the  stem,  which  usually  forms  at  about  one  inch  below  the 
soil  surface.  No  matter  at  what  depth  the  seed  was  planted  the 
permanent  roots  develop  at  about  the  same  depth  below  the  surface. 

Spread  of  Roots. — Corn  roots  usually  spread  jout  laterally  when 
full  grown  to  a  distance  of  four  to  six  feet  on  every  side  of  the  plant, 
and  downward  to  a  depth  of  five  feet  on  friable  lo.am  soils;  but  on 
heavy  clay  or  hardpan  soils  they  may  penetrate  only  two  feet.  Most 
of  the  roots  are  in  the  upper  12  to  18  inches,  this  portion  of  the  soil 
in  a  corn  field  being  thoroughly  filled  with  roots.  The  upper  roots 
are  usually  about  three  inches  below  the  surface  in  loose  prairie  soils, 
but  in  a  close  clay  soil  they  may  come  within  one  inch  of  the  surface, 
necessitating  very  shallow  cultivation. 

Brace  roots  are  strong  roots  thrown  out  just  above  the  soil 
surface.  Above  ground  they  are  strong  and  rigid,  but  entering  the 
soil  they  become  small  and  branching,  and  function  like  other  roots. 
As  the  name  implies,  their  principal  function  is  to  brace  the  plant 
against  the  effect  of  strong  winds. 

Tassel  and  Ear. — The  corn  tassel  produces  the  pollen  for  fer- 
tilizing the  ears.  The  tassel  branches  bear  a  great  number  of  pollen 
sacs,  each  of  which  is  filled  with  pollen  grains.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  one  tassel  bears  twenty  million  pollen  grains.  When  the  silks 
are  ready  to  be  fertilized,  the  pollen  sacs  begin  to  open  and  shed  the 
pollen.  Not  all  the  pollen  from  a  tassel  is  shed  in  one  day,  but  from 
day  to  day  for  about  one  week.  The  pollen  grains  are  easily  carried 
by  wind  to  the  corn  silks  (Fig.  19). 

The  Ear. — An  ear  of  corn  usually  has  from  500  to  1000  kernels. 
The  number  of  rows  varies  from  8  to  30.  The  cob  and  kernels  de- 
4 


50 


CORN 


velop  until  about  one-fourth  full  size,  then  each  kernel  sends  out  a 
long  silk  or  style.  Those  kernels  near  the  butt  send  out  silks  first, 
then  silking  gradually  proceeds  toward  the  tip;  the  whole  process 
taking  from  two  to  three  days.  As  soon  as  a  silk  emerges  from  the 
husk  it  is  ready  to  receive  pollen.  One  pollen  grain  must  fall  on 


FIQ.  19. — Ear  of  corn  in  full  silk,  and  ready  to  be  fertilized.     There  is  a  silk  (pistil)  from 
each  kernel,  and  each  must  receive  a  pollen  grain. 

every  silk,  for  if  it  does  not  receive  pollen,  the  kernel  to  which  it  is 
attached  will  not  develop. 

Fertilization. — When  the  pollen  grain  falls  on  a  silk,  soon  a 
small  tube  is  sent  out  which  finds  its  way  down  the  silk  and  into  the 
egg  cell  of  the  young  kernel.  Reaching  the  egg  cell,  the  contents  of 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  HYBRIDIZING 


51 


-  the  pollen  grain  unites  with  the  egg  cell,  and  very  soon  growth 
begins. 

Hybridizing. — When  the  pollen  comes  from  another  variety  or 
type  of  corn,  the  ear  produced  is  then  said  to  be  "  crossed,"  or  is  a 
hybrid  ear.  All  kinds  of  corn  ^will  cross  naturally  if  planted  near 
enough  for  pollen  to  be  carried  by  the  wind  (Fig.  21). 


FIG.  20. — Method  of  preparing  a  laboratory  exercise,  and  also  showing  in  detail  the  male 
(from  tassel)  and  female  (from  ear)  flowers  of  corn. 

Crossing  is  often  done  artificially.  The  ears  and  tassels  of  plants 
to  be  crossed  are  first  covered  with  paper  bags  (Fig.  21),  before  the 
silks  have  appeared  or  pollen  is  shed.  In  a  few  days,  when  the  silks 
have  appeared,  pollen  is  taken  from  another  plant  and  applied  to  the 
silks.  : 

The  Effects  of  Hybridizing: — When  two  varieties  of  corn  are 
hybridized  or  crossed  there  is  soiree  direct  effect  seen  the  first  year, 


52 


CORN 


though  most  of  the  effect  is  seen  the  next  year  in  the  plants  grown 
from  the  hybrid  seed. 

If  a  sweet  corn  ear  be  fertilized  by  pollen  from  a  dent  corn  plant, 
a  large  proportion  of  the  sweet  corn  kernels  crossed  will  be  smooth, 
like  a  dent  corn,  though  not  all  the  crossed  kernels  are  so  affected. 

The  second  year,  however,  if  the  kernels  are  planted,  the  ears 
produced  will  be  mixed  sweet  and  dent.  Plant  all  the  kernels  pro- 


FIG.  21. — Corn  plant  prepared  for  artificial  crossing.     The  tassels  are  covered  with  sacs 
to  catch  pollen,  while  the  ears  are  protected. 

duced  by  this  first  generation,  and  in  the  second  generation  it  will  be 
found  that  one-fourth  of  the  ears  produced  are  pure  sweet  corn  and 
will  come  true  afterward  with  no  sign  of  the  dent.  One-fourth  of 
the  ears  will  be  true  dent  that  will  come  true  afterward,  but  one-half 
the  ears  will  again  be  hybrids.  This  rule  applies  to  a  great  many 
plants  and  is  called  Mendel's  law,  after  the  man  who  discovered  it. 
The  effect  of  crossing  on  the  vigor  and  yield  is  very  marked  also 
(Fig.  22).  When  the  seed*  has  been  fertilized  by  pollen  from  the 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  HYBRIDIZING 


53 


same  plant,  it  usually  produces  smaller  plants  and  poor  ears.     The 
yield  is  usually  reduced  about  one-half  by  inbreeding,  as  it  is  called. 


FIG.  22.— Effect  of  crossing  and  self-fertilization  on  vigor  of  plants.  (1)  cross-fertilized; 
(2)  close-fertilized,  i.e.,  from  related  plant;  (3)  self-fertilized,  i.e. .from  own  pollen.  Theseare 
typical  plants  after  three  years  in  each  case.  (From  Corn  Crops,  by  Macmillan  Pub.  Co.) 

When  the  pollen  comes  from  an  unrelated  plant  the  vigor  and  yield 
of  the  crop  from  this  crossed  seed  is  increased. 

In  nature  most  of  the  corn  is  pollenized  by  other  than  its  own 
pollen,  but  at  least  some  kernels  must  be  self-fertilized  on  each  ear. 


54  CORN  . 

These  self -fertilized  kernels  probably- account  for  many  of  the  small 
or  barren  stalks  in  fields.  It  has  often  been  found  to  increase  the  yield 
to  cross  two  varieties,  as  illustrated  by  the  following  data  taken  from 
the  Illinois  Experiment  Station.  The.  table  gives  the  yield  of  the 
two  parent  varieties  and  then  the  yield  of  the  hybrid  of  these  varieties. 

Yields  from  Crossing 

Variety  .  Bushels  per  acre  of  corn 

Burrs    White   64.2 

Cranberry - 61.6 

Average 62.9 

Cross 67.1 

Burrs  White 64.2 

Helm's  Improved 79.2 

Average 71.7 

Cross 73.1 

Burrs  White 64.2 

Edmonds 58.4 

Average    61.3 

Cross 78.5 

Learning   73.6 

Golden  Beauty    65.1 

Average 69.3 

Cross 86.2 

Champion  White  Pearl 60.6 

Learning 73.6 

Average 67.1 

Cross  . : 76.2 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  is -the  "  corn  belt "  and  why  is  so  much  corn  grown  here? 

2.  Where  was  corn  first  grown? 

3.  Does  it  have  wild  relatives  ? 

4.  Name  and  distinguish  the  six  principal  types  of  corn. 

5.  What  type  is  most  important? 

6.  What  conditions  affect  the  production  of  tillers? 

7.  Does  depth  of  planting  affect  depth  of  permanent  roots? 

8.  How  are  roots  distributed  in  the  soil? 

9.  What  is  pollen  ?     How  does  it  fertilize  the  ear  ? 

10.  What  part  of  the  ear  silks  first? 

11.  Explain  hybridizing. 

12.  What  effects  are  noted  from  hybridizing,  on  the  kernels  ?     On  the  vigor 

of  plant? 


CHAPTER  VII 
CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  REQUIRED  FOR  CORN 

Effect  of  Climate. — Corn  is  of  tropical  origin,  but,  owing  to  its 
ready  adaptation,  it  has  been  adapted  to  grow  and  mature  as  far 
north  as  -southern  Canada.  However,  corn  has  not  lost  its  liking  for 
warm,  sunshiny  weather.  Corn  not  only  requires  warm  days  but 
comparatively  warm  nights  as  well.  One  effect  of  cool  nights,  even 
when  the  days  are  warm,  is  to  delay  ripening.  This  effect  is  best 
seen  at  high  elevations  where  the  nights  are  cool. 

In  the  Middle  States  corn  that  will  mature  in  100  days  at  an 
elevation  of  1000  feet  will  require  130  to  140  days  at  elevations 
of  2000  or  3000  feet. 

Flint  corns  will  mature  in  cooler  climates  than  dent  corns.  In 
Mexico  dent  corn  will  mature  at  elevations  of  8000  feet,  but  in  North 
Carolina  only  from  2000  to  3000  feet;  and  as  far  north  as  New 
York,  only  the  very  earliest  varieties  will  mature  at  1000  feet  ele- 
vation. Flint  corns,  however,  will  do  well  at  1000  feet  in  New 
York,  and  much  higher.  Consequently,  in  this  State  and  all  New 
England  most  of  the  corn  raised  is  flint,  except  for  silage  when  it 
is  cut  green. 

Sunshine  is  also  required,  and  in  some  places  where  it  is  cloudy 
for  half  the  time,  corn  does  not  do  well  on  that  account.  While  hot, 
sunshiny  days  are  not  always  the  most  agreeable,  yet  this  kind  of 
weather  is  the  greatest  asset  of  the  corn-  and  grain-growing  belt  in 
the  Central  States. 

Soils  for  Corn. — Corn  is  sometimes  called  a  "  coarse  feeder/' 
owing  to  its  ability  to  apparently  use  coarse  manures,  and  will  thrive 
on  new  clover  sods,  in  contrast  with  wheat  and  oats  which  are  said 
to  be  "  delicate  "  feeders,  as  they  require  the  manure  and  sod  to  be 
thoroughly  decayed  for  best  results. 

Corn  does  well  on  land  very  rich  in  nitrogen,  while  small  grain 
would  lodge  on  such  a  soil.  Land  can  hardly  be  made  too  rich  for 
corn.  The  best  natural  corn  lands  are  the  rich  black  river  bottoms 

55 


56  CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  REQUIRED   FOR  CORN 

of  the  Mississippi  River  basin.  There  is  no  better  place  to  plant 
corn  than  on  a  heavy  clover  or  alfalfa  sod,  or  after  a  crop  of  cow 
peas  has  been  plowed  under. 

A  heavy  clay  soil,  such  as  would  produce  good  timothy,  is  not  the 
best  soil  for  corn,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  sandy  potato  soil  is  too 
light  for  best  results  with  corn,  unless  heavily  manured.  A  medium 
loam,  well  drained,  is  considered  as  ideal  land  for  corn.  The  land 
must  be  comparatively  easy  to  prepare  and  cultivate  for  profitable 
corn  culture,  as  corn  is  an  extensive  crop  rather  than  an  intensive 
crop,  and  culture  must  be  relatively  cheap. 

Length  of  Growing  Season. — Corn  varies  in  the  time  required 
to  ripen  from  200  days  down  to  90  days  for  the  earliest  varieties. 
The  length  of  growing  season  is  defined  as  the  average  time  between 
killing  frosts  from  spring  to  fall.  However,  as  some  seasons  have 
very  late  spring  and  very  early  fall  frosts,  the  farmer  usually  selects 
a  variety  of  corn  that  will  mature  in  the  shortest  season  likely  to 
occur. 

It  will  take  about  150  days  to  mature  the  large,  most  productive 
types  of  corn,  which  is  about  the  season  available  in  the  latitude  of 
Central  Missouri  or  the  lower  Ohio  River.  North  of  this  the  shorter 
growing  season  is  a  limiting  factor  in  the  yield  of  corn. 

Rainfall. — A  heavy  crop  of  corn  requires  a  very  large  amount  of 
water  during  a  comparatively  short  time.  This  short  period  is 
about  six  weeks  in  July  and  August.  From  18  to  20  tons  of  water 
are  required  to  pass  through  the  plants  to  produce  one  bushel  of  corn. 
Also  considerable  water  is  lost  by  runoff  when  heavy  rains  come  and 
by  evaporation  from  the  soil. 

It  is  very  important  that  plenty  of  rain  falls  during  the  growing 
season  of  June,  July,  and  August.  Records  show  that  the  average 
yield  of  corn  in  the  corn  belt  varies  from  year  to  year  with  the  aver- 
age rainfall  for  these  three  months.  The  crop  is  good  with  12  to  14 
inches  of  rain  for  the  period,  and  poo*  when  the  rain  amounts  to 
only  8  or  10  inches. 

Importance  of  Adaptation. — While  there  is  a  certain  ideal  kind 
of  corn  climate  and  soil,  yet  corn  has  been  adapted  to  a  wide  range 
of  conditions,  as  high  elevations,  dry  climates,  humid  climates,  clay, 
and  sandy  soils. 


QUESTIONS  57 

It  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  a  corn  that  has  been  adapted  to  a 
certain  set  of  conditions  will  do  better  under  those  conditions  than 
some  variety  from  a  distance.  This  fact  has  been  demonstrated 
many  times  by  farmers  and  experiment  stations.  For  example :  In 
eastern  Nebraska  the  rainfall  is  about  30  inches,  while  in  the  western 
part  of  the  state  it  is  about  eighteen  inches,  and  the  elevation  is 
about  2000  feet  higher.  An  experiment  was  tried  for  two  years  in 
western  Nebraska.  Farmers  grew  in  the  same  field  a  number  of 
varieties  mostly  from  eastern  Nebraska  in  comparison  with  varie- 
ties grown  in  western  Nebraska,  with  the  following  results  in  yield 
of  bushels  per  acre  1 : 

Influence  of  Adaptation 

Varieties  mostly  Native 

Year                                from  eastern  western  Difference 

Nebraska  varieties  in  yield 

1908 24.1                  30.5  6.4 

1909 20.9                  25.4  4.5 

Average     22.5                 27.9  5.4 

The  importance  of  using  native-grown  seed  has  been  demon- 
strated many  times  in  other  states. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  effect  do  cool  nights  have  on  maturing  of  corn? 

2.  Do  dent  and  flint  corns  differ  in  adaptation  to  climate? 

3.  Describe  a  good  corn  soil. 

4.  How  long  should  the  growing  season  be  for  good  corn? 

5.  How  much  water  is  required  to  make  a  bushel  of  corn? 

6.  How  much  rain  is  needed  for  a  good  crop? 

7.  Explain  the  importance  of  adaptation  or  acclimated  corn. 

1  Nebraska  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  126,  1912, 


CHAPTER  VIII 
CORN  CULTURE 

Selecting  a  Variety. — In  the  Gulf  States  " prolific  varieties" 
are  grown  mostly,  which  means  varieties  normally  producing  more 
than  one  ear  on  a  stalk  (Fig.  23).  North  of  the  Ohio  River  only 
single-ear  varieties  are  grown.  Between  the  Ohio  River  and  the 
Gulf  States  is  an  intermediate  territory  where  both  kinds  are  grown. 

The  varieties  in  the  corn  belt  and  southward  are  practically  all 
dent  corns,  but  north  of  the  corn  belt  and  at  high  elevations  flint 
varieties  are  grown  mostly.  Flint  corns  will  mature  in  cooler 
climates. 

Some  of  the  well-known  prolific  varieties  are  Mosby,  Blount, 
Cocke's  Prolific,  Sanders,  Albemarle,  and  Marlboro. 

The  most  important  large  white  dent  varieties  are  Boone  County 
White,  St.  Charles  White*  Silver  Mine;  and  the  most  important 
large  yellow  varieties  are  Learning,  Riley's  Favorite,  Reid's  Yellow 
Dent,  and  Legal  Tender. 

The  best  known  early  dent  varieties  are  Pride  of  the  North,  White 
Cap,  Minnesota  No.  13,  Wisconsin  No.  7,  Early  Huron,  and  Early 
Calico. 

Well-known  flint  varieties  are  King  Philip,  Sanford  White,  Smut 
Nose,  Gold  Nugget,  Eight-row,  and  Twelve-row  yellow  flints. 

There  are  probably  more  than  1000  varieties  of  corn,  but  the  few 
varieties  named  (and  varieties  derived  from  them)  constitute  a  very 
large  percentage  of  the  corn  raised.  Learning  and  Silver  Mine  are 
probably  raised  most  extensively. 

There  are  many  varieties  thoroughly  adapted  to  certain  condi- 
tions, and  farmers  should  always  investigate  local  varieties  first 
(Fig.  24).  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  (Chapter  VII)  that 
thoroughly  adapted  corn  is  better  than  corn  from  a  distance.  The 
only  exception  to  this  rule  is  in  the  case  of  corn  grown  for  fodder  or 
silage  north  of  the  corn  belt.  Since  silage  is  sometimes  cut  green, 
the  corn  need  not  mature,  and  a  large,  late  variety  will  often  produce 
more  feed  than  one  that  would  mature. 
58 


CROSSING 


59 


IMPROVEMENT    AND    BREEDING    OF    CORN 

Varieties.  —  Where  did.  all  the  varieties  come 
from?  There  are  hundreds  of  varieties.  A  lit- 
tle study  into  the  history  of  any  particular  variety 
will  generally  show  that  back  somewhere  a  careful 
grower  spent  years  in  selecting  and  improving 
the  variety.  He  always  had  some  ideal  in  mind, 
and  going  into  his  corn  field  endeavored  to  find 
ears  representing  this  ideal.  Perhaps  he  tried  to 
develop  a  12-rowed  flint  instead  of  an  8-rowed,  or 
desired  some  different  shape  of  ear  or  kernel.  By 
careful  and  patient  selection  toward  his  ideal  he 
would  finally  develop  a  variety  having  the  desired 
character.  Some  man  spent  10  to  40  years  to 
fully  develop  and  fix  the  type.  Such  a  variety  is 
Reid's  Yellow  Derit.  Mr.  James  Reid  began 
selecting  this  in  1846,  but  it  was  not  until  50 
years  later  that  it  came  into  general  cultivation. 

Ear-to-row  Breeding.  —  About  1895  general 
attention  was  first  called  to  the  plan  of  corn  im- 
provement which  we  now  know  as  "  ear-to-row  " 
breeding.  It  was  found  that  many  ears  of  corn 
would  yield  unusually  high,  but  this  could  not 
be  told  by  examining  the  ear.  The  new  j>lan 
was  to  plant  each  ear  to  a  row,  then  in  the  fall 
select  seed  only  from  those  rows  giving  a  high 
average  yield.  This  method  is  superior  to  the 
old  method  of  merely  selecting  the  best  looking 
ears  (Fig.  25). 

Crossing.  —  We  have  already  noted  the  effect 
of  crossing  on  corn.  New  varieties  can  easily  be 
produced  by  crossing,  and  it  is  sometimes  desir- 
able to  cross  varieties  for  this  purpose.  In  fact, 
many  of  the  variations  found  in  corn  fields  are 
due  to  natural  crossing,  which  is  commonly  due 
to  the  great  distance  pollen  is  carried  by  wind. 


i       tj 

IV) 


F       23  _Stalk 


{££?  Experiment  Sta' 


60 


CORN   CULTURE 


SELECTION   AND    CARE    OF    SEED    CORN 

The  careful  selection  of  seed  corn  seems  important  for  two  rea- 
sons: (1)  In  practically  all  the  region  north  of  the  Ohio  River  it 
is  necessary  to  see  that  corn  matures  well,  while  at  the  same  time 
maintaining  the  size  of  the  ear.  (2)  Since  corn  plants  are  spaced 
wide  apart  (as  compared  with  small  grain  which  is  sown  thickly), 
the  plants  are  largely  relieved  from  the  effects  of  "  natural  selection/' 


Fia.  24. — Difference  in  types  of  corn.     Eureka  corn,  a  souchern  type,  compared  with  sweet 

corn  on  right. 

and  so  "  artificial  selection  "  must  be  practised  to  maintain  the  crop. 
Natural  selection  can  be  secured  by  very  thick  planting,  and  results 
at  the  Nebraska  Station  indicate  that  a  more  vigorous  type  of  corn 
can  be  developed  under  thick  planting  than  under  thin  planting. 
For  several  years  corn  was  grown  continuously,  in  one  case,  with 
only  1  stalk  per  hill ;  in  another  case  3  stalks  per  hill  were  grown 


SELECTION  AND  CARE  OF,  SEED  CORN 


61 


• 


Ml, 


FIG.  25. — Two  types  of  Learning  corn  developed  by  six  years'  selection  at  the  Illinois 
Experiment  Station*  the  one  lor  low  ears  and  the.  other  for  high  ears.  (From.  Illinois  Experi- 
ment Station.) 


62  CORN  CULTURE 

continuously ;  and  in  a  third  case  5  stalks  per  hill  were  grown.  In 
the  thick  planting  only  the  strongest  stalks  could  produce  good  ears. 
The  yields  produced  in  1911,  after  six  years  of  natural  selection, 
when  seed  from  each  case  was  planted  at  the  normal  rate  (3  stalks 
per  hill),  were  as  follows2: 

Results  from  Seed  Selected  from  Thick  and  Thin  Plantings 

Yield  when  planted  3  grains 
Origin  of  seed  per  hill.    Bushels  per  acre 

One  plant  per  hill 39.8 

Three  plants  per  hill 43.7 

Five  plants  per  hill 48.1 

Selecting  Seed  from  Crib. — In  the  past  common  custom  has 
been  to  husk  the  corn  crop  and  crib  the  ears.  The  farmer  would 
select  his  seed  while  the  corn  was  being  cribbed  or  taken  out.  Often 
excellent  seed  corn  can  be  secured  in  this  way,  but  there  are  at  least 
two  disadvantages:  (1)  The  crib  is  not  a  good  place  to  preserve 
the  germinating  qualities  of  corn,  and  often  it  is  difficult  to  find 
seed  that  will  grow.  (2)  It  is  not  known  under  what  conditions  the 
seed  co,rn  was  grown.  There  are  always  very  favorable  places  in  the 
field  where  it  may  also  happen  that  the  stand  of  corn  is  thin.  Large 
ears  may  grow  here,  but  they  are  not  necessarily  adapted  to  the  aver- 
age conditions  of  the  field. 

The  best  seed  corn  is  that  grown  where  the  stand  is  normal  and 
the  soil  conditions  are  average. 

Field  Selection. — Many  good  growers  now  select  their  seed  corn 
from  the  standing  stalks  in  the  field.  Where  it  is  desired  to  main- 
tain or  increase  the  earliness  of  the  corn,  selection  is  usually  made 
as  soon  as  the  first  ears  are  well  matured.  In  the  corn  belt  this 
would  be  about  the  last  of  October. 

The  advantages  of  field  selection  are :  (1)  Early  maturing  ears 
may  be  selected.  (2)  The  conditions,  as  to  soil  and  stand,  under 
which  the  plant  was  grown  may  be  known.  (3)  Character  of  the 
plant  may  be  known.  It  is  desirable  to  select  ears  of  uniform 
height  and  growing  rather  low  on  the  stalk.  (4)  The  seed  corn 
may  be  carefully  dried  and  stored  to  preserve  germination. 

Storing  Seed  Corn. — AJ1  the  factors  that  cause  seed  corn  to  lose 
germination  have  not  been  clearly  worked  out.  Corn  when  first  ripe 

2  Nebraska  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  127,  p.  21,  1912. 


GERMINATION  TESTS  63 

contains  25  to  30  per  cent  of  water,  while  good  dry  corn  contains  only 
10  to  12  per  cent  of  water.  If  the  ear  corn  does  not  dry  down 
rapidly  (in  three  or  four  weeks)  it  is  very  apt  to  lose  in  germinating 
quality.  Freezing  is  especially  injurious  when  corn  is  damp,  but 
it  will  deteriorate  without  freezing.  When  corn  is  dry  (15  per  cent 
moisture)  it  will  endure  hard  freezing  without  injury,  and  retain 
germination  for  several  years. 

Therefore,  the  most  important  matter  to  be  given  attention  is  to 
dry  the  seed  corn  as  soon  as  ripe.  In  large  seed  houses  the  corn  is 
sometimes  kiln-dried  by  artificial  heat,  but  the  farmer  will  ordinarily 
dry  his  seed  by  hanging  on  strings,  impaling  the  ears  on  nails  driven 
into  a  board,  laying  them  on  shelves  made  from  wire  netting,  or  by 
use  of  one  of  the  many  drying  racks  on  the  market. 

Drying  will  take  three  to  four  weeks,  when  the  ears  may  be 
packed  in  crates  or  shelled  to  be  stored  in  a  dry  loft. 


Fia.  26. — A  box  tester  for  seed  corn.  Upon  muslin  cloth  squares  are  drawn  and 
numbered.  On  each  square  are  laid  five  kernels  from  an  ear  of  the  same  number.  When 
the  tester  is  filled,  the  sawdust  pad  shown  at  the  left  is  placed  to  keep  the  grain  moist. 
(Davis's  "Productive  Farming.")  .  . 

Examining  Seed  Corn. — To  determine  by  examination  whether 
seed  corn  will  grow,  first  make  a  careful  study  of  good,  bright,  sound 
corn  that  is  known  to  grow  well.  Know  in  particular  how  a  good 
germ  looks  when  cut  open  with  a  sharp  knife.  Note  that  the  germ 
is  neither  brittle  nor  very  soft,  but  cuts  about  like  solid  cheese.  Then 
this  rule  may  be  accepted:  Any  discoloration  of  either  the  grain 
or  any  part  of  the  germ,  or  any  departure  from  normal  texture,  indi- 
cates weakened  vitality.  A  careful  man  may  discard  most  poor 
germinating  ears  by  examination. 

Germination  Tests. — There  are  occasions  when  enough  good, 
sound  ears  are  found  only  with  difficulty,  and  it  is  necessary  to  take 
a  great  many  ears  of  doubtful  germinating  qualities. 

First  take  a  random  sample  of  100  ears  and,  taking  3  kernels  from 
each,  make  a  general  test.  If  less  than  90  per  cent  of  the  kernels  pro- 
duce good  sprouts,  it  would  then  be  advisable  to  test  each  ear  sepa- 


64  CORN  CULTURE 

rately.  This  can  be  done  by  preparing  a  number  of  large  germination 
boxes. 

Germination  Box. — Make  a  box  of  wood  or  sheet-iron  about  30 
inches  square  (Fig.  26).  Put  3  inches  of  sand  or  sawdust  in  the 
bottom.  Lay  over  this  a  white  cotton  cloth  marked  off  in  3-inch 
squares.  Number  the  squares  from  1  to  100.  Now  place  the  ears  of 
corn  in  order,  on  a  floor,,  shelves,  or  in  a  rack.  Number  the  ears 
from  1  to  100.  Place  six  grains  from  ear  number  1  in  square  num- 
ber 1,  and  so  on  until  grains  have  been  taken  from  each  ear.  Lay 
a  second  cloth  over  the  kernels  and  place  one  inch  of  sawdust  on  top. 
Wet  down  thoroughly  and  keep  in  a  warm  place.  In  5  days  the  top 
cloth  can  be  rolled  off,  and  examination  will  readily  show  which 
ears  will  germinate  and  which  will  not. 

There  are  a  number  of  patented  germinators  on  the  market,  with 
means  of  providing  artificial  heat,  that  are  satisfactory. 

Doll  Baby  Germinator. — Another  satisfactory  method  is  the 
doll  baby.  Lay  out  the  corn  ears  side  by  side  on  a  floor.  Lay  a 
long  strip  of  Canton  flannel  12  inches  wide  by  the  row  of  ears.  Place 
kernels  of  corn  about  three  inches  from  one  edge  of  the  cloth  strip. 
Then  fold  over  the  strip  from  one  side.  Roll  strip  from  one  end. 
When  rolled  up,  soak  in  water  for  12  hours,  then  place  roll  in  a 
covered  receptacle  and  keep  at  proper  temperature  for  several  days. 
Unroll  cloth  at  end  of  same  ears  of  corn.  At  a  glance  it  will  be 
ascertained  which  ears  will  grow. 

Butt  and  Tip  Kernels  for  Seed. — Frequent  tests  have  shown 
'that  butt  and  tip  kernels  grow  and  produce  fairly  welL  However, 
they  are  smaller,  and  planters  can  not  be  adjusted  to  plant  all  sizes  of 
corn  evenly.  It  is  advisable  to  remove  the  small  kernels  from  butt 
and  tip  before  shelling  seed. 

EXERCISES 

Field  Study  of  Maize.— This  exercise  is  most  valuable  if  made  in  two 
fields,  one  a  good  field  and  the  other  poorer. 

1.  First  measure  the  width  of  rows  and  figure  out  how  long  a  row  it  will 
take  to  equal  one  one-hundredth  of  an  acre.     In  most  fields  this  will  be 
between  7  and  8  rods. 

2.  Let  each  student  take  a  row  and  secure  the  following  data : 
How  many  stalks  per  row? 

Per  cent  of  ear-bearing  stalks. 
Per  cent  of  barren  stalks. 


EXERCISES 


65 


How  many  stalks  per  acre? 

Weigh  three  ears  of  dry  corn,  representing  small,  medium,  and  large  ears. 
How  many  bushels  per  acre  if  each  stalk  produced  an  ear?     Figure  for 
all  three  sizes  .(70  pounds  ears  per  bushel). 
Use  following  form  to  report : 


Weight  of 
ears 

Number  of 
ears  per  acre 

Bushels  per 
acre 

Per  cent 
barren  plants 

Reduction  in  yield  due 
to  barren  plants 

Selecting  Seed  Corn. — Class  select  100  seed  ears,  and  divide  into  four 
lots.  Store  each  lot  in  a  different  place,  selecting  at  least  one  good,  dry,  airy 
place,  and  one  place  where  corn  will  dry  poorly,  as  a  tight  barrel  or  box. 
Later  make  germination  tests  to  determine  effect  of  storage  on  yield. 

If  apparatus  is  available,  it  will  be  well  to  determine  moisture  present 
when  gathered,  and  twice  a  month  while  drying. 

Study  of  Germinating  Quality  of  Corn. — The  purpose  of  this  exer- 
cise is  to  acquaint  the  student  with  the  characteristic  appearance  of  good 
and  poor  kernels  of  seed  corn,  with  special  reference  to  germinating  qualities. 

Preparing  Germination  Box. — A  box  15  inches  square  and  3  inches  deep 
will  germinate  25  ears. 

1.  Put  2  inches  of  sawdust  in  box  and  tamp  down  well  with  a  brick. 

2.  Lay  on  the  sawdust  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  or  white  cloth  which 
has  previously  been  marked  into  3-inch  squares. 

3.  Number  25  ears  of  corn. 

4.  Take  from  each  ear  6  kernels  from  near  the  butt,  middle,  and  tip,  and 
place  in  germinator.     Examine  two  or  three  more  kernels  by  cutting  open 
with  a  sharp  knife. 

5.  Mark  a  piece  of  note  paper  into  25  squares  and  fill  out  in  corre- 
sponding squares  the  following  data  on  each  ear.     This  is  to  give  you  an 
opportunity  to  make  a  detailed  study. 

A.  Grain: 

1.  Appearance — bright;    dull? 

2.  Discolored — back;    tip? 

3.  Shape  of  tip — pointed;    plump? 

4.  General  texture — hard;    soft? 

B.  Germs: 

5.  Covering — smooth;    blistered? 

6.  Texture — soft;    medium;    dry? 

7.  Air-space — large;    small;    none? 

8.  Color — normal;    yellowish;    etc.? 

6.  On  a  second  sheet  state  your  opinion  on  germinating  quality  and  also 
data  secured. 

1.  How  do  you  expect  this  to  germinate — good,  medium,  poor? 

2.  Number  germinated  6  days? 

3.  Number  germinated  10  days? 

4.  Is  germination  strong,  medium,  weak?  • 
5 


66 


CORN  CULTURE 


7.  Written  Conclusions. — From  results  of  your  test  and  information 
from  readings  and  lectures,  make  a  report. 

1.  Number  of  ears  showing  strong,  medium,  and  weak  germination. 

2.  Designate  the  5  best  ears. 

3.  How  should  seed  corn  be  selected  and  preserved  to  secure  best 

germinating  qualities? 


The  above  is  the  way  sheet  is  ruled  for  making  out  reports  on  ears. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  varieties  differ  in  the  Gulf  States,  the  corn  belt,  and  the  northern 

States? 

2.  How  have  varieties  of  corn  originated? 

3.  Explain  ear-to-row  breeding. 

4.  Does  corn  always  mature  well? 

6.  Explain  the  principle  of  "  natural  selection  "  in  growing  seed  corn. 

6.  Explain  disadvantages  of  crib  selection  of  seed. 

7.  Explain  advantages  of  field  selection. 

8.  What  are  the  principal  precautions  to  observe  in  storing  seed  corn  ? 

9.  Describe  the  appearance  of  good  seed  corn. 

10  How  do  you  make  germination  test  in  a  box?     by  the  rag-doll  method? 
11.  Compare  the  value  of  butt  and  tip  kernels  for  seed. 


CHAPTER  IX 
PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  CORN 

UNDER  the  chapters  discussing  "  Soil  for  Corn  "  and  "  Cropping 
Systems  "  attempt  has  been  made  to  show  how  land  can  best  be 
maintained  in  a  productive  state  for  corn  production.  It  takes 
years  to  "  run  down  "  or  make  unproductive  a  good  piece  of  land  by 
even  the  most  exhaustive  cropping  method.  It  takes  even  longer  to 
restore  production  to  an  exhausted  field.  The  important  consider- 
ation in  crop  production  is  maintaining  the  productivity  of  the  land. 

Preparation,  Secondary. — The  crop  depends  not  so  much  on  the 
preparation  just  preceding  planting  (provided  it  is  reasonably  good) 
as  it  does  on  the  treatment  the  land  has  had  for  the  previous  ten  or 
twenty  years. 

To  thoroughly  plow,  pulverize,  and  free  from  weeds  is  all  the 
preparation  good  land  needs. 

Plowing  Corn  Land. — Experiments  have  not  shown  an  exact 
relationship  between  depth  or  time  of  plowing  and  yield.  This  is 
probably  because  the  temporary  effect  of  deep  or  shallow  plowing  may 
be  very  small,  owing  to  other  more  important  factors,  and  also  be- 
cause results  appear  to  vary  some  with  soils  and  seasons. 

In  the  rather  loose  loam  soils  of  the  semi-arid  regions  at  the  west 
edge  of  the  corn  belt,  in  central  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  more  than 
one-half  of  the  corn  land  is  not  plowed  at  all.  The  land  may  be 
disk-harrowed  in  early  spring,  to  preserve  moisture,  and  perhaps 
again  just  before  planting  to  kill  weeds.  The  corn  is  planted  with  a 
lister,  which  is  a  double  mould-board  plow  that  opens  up  a  furrow, 
planting  the  corn  in  the  bottom. 

In  the  South  corn  is  also  planted  in  a  furrow,  on  the  drier  sandy 
lands.  The  "listing"  method  then  is  confined  to  the  loose,  drier 
soils  in  the  West  and  South.  In  all  other  places  the  land  is  pre- 
pared by  plowing. 

The  reason  seems  to  be  that  practically  all  heavy  land  in  humid 

67 


68         PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  CORN 

seasons  must  be  plowed  thoroughly  once  a  year  to  keep  it  in  goo'd 
physical  condition,  while  in  cultivated  crops.  Without  good  plow- 
ing the  land  becomes  hard,  and  increases  the  laber  of  planting  and 
cultivating. 

Depth  of  Plowing. — Nothing  definite  can  be  said  regarding 
depth  of  plowing  so  far  as  immediate  effect  on  the  corn  crop  follow- 
ing. However,  common  experience  is  that  land  can  not  be  kept  in  a 
good  productive  state  by  constant  shallow  plowing.  The  reasons 
seem  to  be:  (1)  The  humus  and  fertilizer  applied  is  then  limited 
to  the  surface  few  inches.  (2)  The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the 
humus  or  fertilizer  can  not  be  fully  utilized  by  the  plant,  as  it  does 
not  have  sufficient  roots  in  the  surface  three  or  four  inches ;  also  the 
surface  may  be  too  dry  for  considerable  periods.  (3)  Constant 
shallow  plowing  is  apt  to  give  a  hardpan  subsurface. 

Fall  or  Spring  Plowing. — Where  heavy  sod  lands  are  to  be  put 
into  corn  or  manure  is  to  be  turned  under,  fall  plowing  is  best,  as 
the  vegetable  matter  decays  more  thoroughly.  In  other  cases  where 
the  corn  follows  corn  or  grain,  fall  and  spring  plowing  give  about 
equal  results.  It  is  then  largely  a  question  of  farm  management. 
On  most  farms  it  is  convenient  to  do  a  part  or  all  of  the  plowing  in 
the  fall. 

On  some  heavy  soils  the  fall-plowed  land  becomes  too  compact  by 
spring,  necessitating  replowing  for  the  corn.  In  such  cases  spring 
plowing  is  cheaper  and  advisable. 

Time  of  Spring  Plowing. — Three  advantages  have  been  estab- 
lished regarding  early  spring  plowing  as  compared  with  late  spring 
plowing :  (1)  The  available  plant  food,  especially  nitrogen,  will  be 
greater  with  early  plowing,  due  to  aeration  and  greater  activity  of 
soil  bacteria.  (2)  More  moisture  will  be  conserved,  if  the  spring  is 
dry.  ( 3 )  As  a  result  the  yield  of  corn  is  usually  better. 

Preparation  After  Plowing. — The  principal  objects  of  prepa- 
ration after  plowing  are  to  pulverize  and  compact  the  soil  well  and 
destroy  weeds. 

Caution  is  needed  in  the  case  of  certain  very  fine  clay  soils,  which 
when  pulverized  too  fine  are  apt  to  run  together  in  a  hard  crust  after 
heavy  rains.  On  such  soils  tools  that  give  a  coarse  preparation,  such 


LISTING  69 

as  cultivators'  or  spring-tooth  harrows,  should  be  used  rather  than 
the  disk  harrow. 

It  is  all-important  to  kill  weeds  before  planting,  as  it  greatly 
simplifies  the  care  of  the  crop.  One  advantage  of  early  plowing  is 
that  weed  seeds  may  be  germinated  and  destroyed  before  planting. 

PLANTING   CORN 

As  heretofore  stated,  corn  is  planted  in  furrows  on  light  dry  soils ; 
on  the  level  surface  generally,  and  also  on  ridges  in  certain  wet 
lands  in  the  southern  States.  Corn  may  be  drilled,  or  check-rowed, 
i.e.,  in  hills  rowing  both  ways.  It  is  dropped  by  hand,  with  various 
kinds  of  one-horse  drills,  and  with  two-horse  planters. 

Hand  Planting. — In  regions  where  the  average  planting  per 
farmer  is  ten  acres  or  less,  the  planting  is  quite  generally  done  by 
hand.  Either  the  prepared  land  is  furrowed  out  both  ways  and  the 
seed  dropped  at  the  intersecting  furrows,  or  it  is  planted  with  a  hand 
jab  planter.  A  man  can  plant  5  acres  a  day  by  hand.  The  deprecia- 
tion, repairs,  and  interest  on  a  $40  machine  would  amount  to  five  or 
six  dollars  per  year,  so  that  hand  planting  on  small  areas  is  really 
cheaper  than  keeping  a  two-horse  machine. 

Drilling. — Many  farmers  growing  small  areas  of  corn  use  a  one- 
horse  drill,  partly  because  it  can  be  bought  much  cheaper  than  a 
two-horse  check-row  planter.  A  grain  drill  can  also  be  easily 
adapted  to  drilling  corn  by  stopping  up  part  of  the  feed  holes.  This 
tool  is  used  very  generally  throughout  the  North  Atlantic  States  for 
drilling  silage  corn. 

Drilling  has  another  advantage  on  hilly  land  in  following  the 
contour  of  the  hills  with  rows,  thus  preventing  soil  washing. 

Check-row  Planting. — On  level  land  where  large  fields  are 
grown,  check-row  planting  is  the  common  method.  This  is  prin- 
cipally because  it  is  easier  to  keep  free  from  weeds.  Drilling  on  the 
surface  makes  necessary  either  hand  hoeing  to  keep  weeds  out  of  the 
row,  or  throwing  considerable  soil  to  the  corn  in  cultivating  in  order 
to  cover  the  weeds.  This  latter  method  develops  too  much  of  a  ridge. 

Listing. — When  corn  is  planted  in  a  furrow,  as  with  the  lister 


70 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  CORN 


(p.  67),  it  is  drilled.     The  soil  can  all  be  thrown  back  to  the  corn  in 
cultivating,  covering  weeds  and  finally  leaving  the  land  level. 

Furrow  openers,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  disks,  are  now  put  on 
regular  two-row  surface  planters.  These  open  a  shallow  furrow,  and 
the  corn  may  be  either  drilled  or  checked. 


FIG.  27. — Wheat  plants  illustrating  the  principle  that  permanent  roots  always  develop 
at  about  the  same  depth,  whether  the  seed  is  planted  deep  or  shallow. 

Yield  of  Hill  and  Drill  Planting. — At  the  Illinois  Station  the 
two  methods  of  distributing  seed  were  compared  in  this  way :  Corn 
was  planted  one  plant  every  12  inches,  two  plants  every  24  inches, 
three  plants  every  36  inches,  and  four  plants  every  48  inches.  No 
marked  difference  was  found  in  yield  of  grain  per  acre,  so  long  as 
the  number  of  plants  per  acre  was  the  same. 


RATE  OF  PLANTING  71 

Time  of  Planting. — The  following  table  shows  the  time  of 
planting  in  the  United  States  * : 

Time  of  Planting  Corn 


Region 

Beginning 

General 

Ending 

Planting 
period, 
days 

Gulf  States  

March  15 

April    5 

May  10 

55 

Central  States  (Virginia  to  Kansas) 
Northern   States    (New   York    to 

April     15 
May     10 

May     1 
May  20 

May  25 
June    1 

40 
20 

The  planting  period  is  much  longer  in  the  southern  States  than 
in  the  North. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the  very  earliest  or  latest  plantings 
in  any  particular  region  do  not  give  as  good  yields  as  intermediate 
plantings.  The  Illinois  Station  made  a  number  of  plantings  from 
April  28  to  June  9.  The  corn  planted  in  May  averaged  73  bushels 
per  acre,  while  the  remaining  plantings,  one  in  April  and  two  in 
June,  yielded  only  63  bushels  per  acre. 

Depth  of  Planting. — There  is  no  object  in  planting  corn  deeper 
than  is  necessary  to  insure  good  germination.  Experiments  in  a 
number  of  States  with  corn  planted  from  one  to  six  inches  deep,  have 
seldom  shown  advantage  for  the  very  deep  plantings.  In  heavy, 
cold  or  wet  soils  from  one  to  two  inches  is  best,  while  in  lighter  and 
dry  soils  two  to  three  inches  is  best. 

Some  have  thought  that  the  corn  would  root  deeper  if  planted 
deep.  The  plant,  however,  usually  forms  its  first  joint  about  one 
inch  below  the  surface,  no  matter  what  the  depth  of  planting,  and  the 
roots  are  developed  from  that  point  (Fig.  27). 

Rate  of  Planting. — The  customary  rate  of  planting  varies  from 
3000  to  4000  plants  per  acre  in  the  Gulf  States  to  12,000  to  15,000 
in  the  northern  States.  The  plants  are  larger  in  the  South  and  the 
soil  is  often  poor,  but  the  size  of  plants  decreases  to  the  north  and 
.  the  customary  rate  of  planting  correspondingly  increases.  The  fol- 
lowing table  illustrates: 

1U.  S.  Yearbook,  1910,  p.  491. 


72 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  CORN 

Customary  Rate  of  Planting  Corn 


Region                                     .    *. 

Distance 
apart  of  hills 

Plants 
per  hill 

Plants 
per  acre 

Gulf  States 

4'x5' 

2 

4  000 

Middle  States 

3'8"  x  3'8" 

2-3 

9  000 

Northern  States  .          ... 

3'6"  x  3'6" 

3-4 

12  000 

There  is  a  wide  range  of  planting  in  any  region,  within  which 
there  will  be  very  little  effect  on  yield  of  grain,  although  the  yield  of 
stover  will  usually  increase  with  rate  of  planting.  This  is  due  to  the 
adjustment  of  the  plants.  With  thick  planting  the  ears  are  smaller, 
while  more  plants  are  barren.  The  following  data  show  yields  at 
the  Nebraska  Station  for  different  rates  of  planting : 

Results  with  Planting  Corn  at  Various  Rates  (1903-1908),  Nebraska 2 


Plants 
per  hill 

Yield 
per  acre 

Average 
weight 
of  ear 

Number  of 
ears  per  100 
plants 

Per  cent 
barren 

plants 

Yield  of 
stover  per 
acre 

bushels 

ounces 

pounds 

1 

48.3 

10.5 

161 

3.0 

2 

67.7 

10.6 

115 

4.8 

5984 

3 

75.5 

9.4 

95 

6.9 

5972 

4 

76.7 

8.2 

82 

8.3 

6692 

5 

76.3 

7.4 

77 

10.8 

6969 

Where  corn  is  grown  for  grain  there  is  no  good  reason  for  plant- 
ing thicker  than  is  necessary  to  secure  maximum  yield,  but  where 
grown  for  fodder  or  silage  the  rate  may  be  increased  one-fourth  to 
secure  the  larger  yield  of  stover. 

Relation  of  Soil  and  Climate. — The  best  rate  will  vary  with 
soils  and  climate.  At  the  Illinois  Station,3  in  a  series  of  experi- 
ments covering  the  State,  it  was  found  that  three  kernels  gave  the 
best  results  on  land  producing  more  than  50  bushels  per  acre,  and 
two  kernels  per  hill  where  the  land  naturally  produced  less  than  50 
bushels  per  acre. 

At  the  Indiana  Station4  corn  was  planted  in  drill  rows  from 


1908. 


2  Nebraska  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  112,  p.  30,  1909. 
8  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  126,  pp.  366-377, 


*  Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  64,  p.  4. 


QUESTIONS 


73 


11  to  19  y2  inches  apart  for  a  series  of  years.  In  seasonable  years  the 
best  yields  were  secured  with  the  thickest  planting,  and  in  dry  years 
with  the  thinnest  planting. 

Effect  of  Season  on  Yield  and  Percentage  of  Grain 


Seasonable,  1888-1891 

Dry,  1893-1894 

Stalks, 

inches 

apart 

Bushels 

Pounds 

Ears 

Bushels 

Pounds 

Ears 

corn 

stalks 

percentage 

corn 

stalks 

percentage 

19^ 

49.76 

3,617 

49.1 

22.07 

3,092 

33.3 

'16 

54.05 

4,065 

48.2 

21.27 

3,143 

32.2 

14 

57.79 

4,158 

49.3 

19.39 

3,762 

26.5 

15 

57.81 

4,201 

49.6 

14.28 

5,204 

16.1 

11 

59.14 

4,960 

45.5 

13.80 

4,360 

18.1 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  important  is  preparation  of  land? 

2.  Why  does  deep  or  shallow  plowing  not  show  consistent  results? 

3.  Explain  different  systems  for  preparing  corn  land. 

4.  What  are  the  reasons  for  believing  deep  plowing  to  be  good  practice? 

5.  Compare  early  vs.  late  spring  plowing. 

6.  Can  land  ever  be  pulverized  too  fine? 

7.  When  is  hand  planting  practical? 

8.  Where    is    drilling    general    and    good    practice?        Where    check-row 

planting  ? 

9.  Does  the  method  of  drill  or  hill  planting  affect  yield? 

10.  When  does  corn  planting  begin  in  the  South?     North? 

11.  How  deep  should  corn  be  planted? 

12.  Explain  the  principles  involved  in  rate  of  planting  as  affected  by  size 

of  plant;  fertility  of  soil;  good  and  poor  seasons. 


CHAPTER  X 
TILLAGE  FOR  CORN 

Tillage  Machinery. — Up  to  within  comparatively  recent  times 
agriculture  was  practically  without  tools  for  intertillage.  In  fact, 
most  of  the  crops,  as  wheat,  oats,  and  barley,  did  not  require  inter- 
tillage.  The  hoe  was  the  only  special  tool  for  this  purpose,  although 
the  primitive  wooden  plow  was  also  driven  between  the  rows.  The 
one-horse  mould-board  plow  was  quite  generally  used  up  to  1850  for 
corn  and  potato  cultivation,  and  is  still  used  in  some  parts  of  the 
South. 

The  great  intertilled  crops  are  corn,  potatoes  and  cotton.  Since 
1850  there  has  been  a  rapid  increase  in  the  number  and  kinds  of 
intertillage  tools.  The  first  tools  were  the  "  single  shovel "  and 
"  double  shovel "  one-horse  cultivators.  The  principal  course  of 
evolution  has  bgen  to  first  attach  two  double  shovel  gangs  to  a  sulky, 
so  that  a  row  could  be  cultivated  at  one  time,  then  four  gangs,  so  that 
two  rows  could  be  cultivated.  The  principal  change  in  shovels  has 
been  to  reduce  the  width  and  increase  the  number  up  to  three  to  five 
shovels  in  the  place  of  two. 

Disk  gangs  are  also  used  in  place  of  shovels,  and  do  excellent  work 
on  level  loam  soils. 

Broad  shears  or  blades  which  shave  off  a  shallow  surface  are  also 
successful  where  the  ground  is  free  from  trash  or  stones,  and  the 
principal  object  is  weed  killing. 

Weeders. — A  class  of  tools  with  very  narrow,  flexible  teeth, 
called  weeders,  are  very  useful  in  killing  small  weeds  when  the  soil 
is  in  good  tilth,  but  are  not  effective  on  compact  soil.  The  weeder  is 
extensively  used  in  cultivating  young  corn  the  first  three  weeks  after 
up,  as  it  will  destroy  weeds  in  the  hill  without  injury  to  the  corn 
plants. 

Lister  Cultivators. — There  have  been  devised  for  listed  corn  a 

number  of  special  tools.     The  first  of  these  tools  was  essentially  a 

pair  of  wooden  runners,  set  close  together  to  follow  the  furrow  left 

by  the  lister,  with  knives  or  shovels  to  work  the  ridge  on  either  side 

74 


LOSS  OF  SOIL  MOISTURE 


75 


(Fig.  28).  Later,  metal  wheels  or  disks  were  substituted  as  fol- 
lowers. These  tools  are  used  until  the  ridge  has  been  partly  worked 
down,  then  the  ordinary  shovel  cultivator. 

Reasons  for  Intertillage. — Intertillage  is  so  universal  for  cer- 
tain crops  that  we  scarcely  stop  to  ask  the  reason,  assuming  it  neces- 
sary for  growth. 

The  reasons  differ  somewhat,  but  the  important  reasons  seem  to 
be  (1)  to  conserve  moisture  and  (2)  to  destroy  weeds.  In  addition, 
cultivation  probably  helps  in  many  cases  in  freeing  some  plant  food ; 
also  a  well  cultivated  surface  will  probably  take  up  more  water,  in 


FIG.  28. — Two-row  cultivator  for  listed  corn  at  work. 

the  case  of  sudden  heavy  rainfall,  than  an  uncultivated  surface.  The 
first  two  reasons,  namely,  conservation  of  moisture  and  destruction 
of  weeds,  are  the  points  to  give  most  attention. 

Loss  of  Soil  Moisture. — As  fast  as  moisture  evaporates  from  the 
surface,  more  water  moves  up  from  below.  This  is  called  the  capil- 
lary rise  of  water,  since  its  upward  movement  against  gravity  in  the 
very  small  spaces  between  soil  particles  is  similar  to  the  rise  of  a 
liquid  in  a  capillary  tube.  When  these  small  "capillary  "  spaces  are 
broken  up,  as  by  cultivation,  the  upward  movement  can  not  reach  the 
surface,  and  water  loss  by  evaporation  decreases.  Hence  in  a  bare 
soil,  without  cultivation,  water  loss  is  large,  and  it  has  been  demon- 


76 


TILLAGE  FOR  CORN 


strated  on  such  soils  (when  undisturbed)  that  30  to  60  per  cent  of 
the  water  lost  may  be  saved  by  cultivation.1 

Water  Loss  in  Fields. — In  a  corn  field  conditions  are  quite 
different  from  those  on  a  fallow  soil.  (1)  Conditions  favoring 
evaporation  from  the  soil  surface  are  largely  removed.  (2)  The 
upward  movement  of  soil  moisture  is  intercepted  by  roots. 

1.  Set  a  pan  of  water  on  bare  ground  and  another  on  the  ground 
in  a  wheat  field.  The  water  surface  in  the  open  will  lose  moisture  at 
the  rate  of  one-half  inch  per  day  in  dry  weather,  while  the  water 
surface  in  the  wheat  field  will  probably  not  lose  as  much  in  a  week. 
A  similar  pan  of  water  in  a  corn  field  will  lose  more  than  in  a  wheat 
field,  being  more  exposed,  but  much  less  than  on  a  bare  (fallow) 
field.2 

2.  In  a  wheat  or  corn  field  a  mass  of  roots  fills  the  upper  eight 
to  twelve  inches  of  soil,  intercepting  any  upward  movement  of 
water.  This  would  be  especially  true  in  a  dry  time,  and  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  any  appreciable  amount  of  water  could  pass  through  this  mass 
of  roots  to  the  surface. 

Conserving  Moisture  in  a  Corn  Field.— From  the  above  we 
may  conclude  that  in  a  fallow  field  moisture  can  be  conserved  by 
cultivation.  That  in  a  corn  field,  up  to  the  time  the  plants  are 
twelve  inches  high,  the  conditions  are  similar  to  a  fallow  field,  but 
from  this  time  on  conditions  rapidly  change  as  the  tops  protect  the 
surface  and  the  roots  occupy  the  soil. 

Cultivation  should  be  effective  in  conserving  moisture  during 
early  growth,  but  not  very  effective  after  corn  is  five  or  six  feet  in 
height.  This  conclusion  has  been  verified  by  numerous  experiments, 
which  the  following  will  illustrate : 

Effects  of  Different  Treatments  After  Corn  Is  High 


Place  and  duration  of  experiment 

Weeds  only 
scraped  off 
with  hoe 

Average  of 
cultivation 
treatments 

Illinois  Experiment  Station: 
Average  for  5  years  (Bulletin  31,  1894)  
Utah  Experiment  Station  : 
Average  for  8  years  (Bulletin  66,  1900)  

bu.  per  acre 

68.3 
58.8 

bu.  per  acre 

68.6 

55.8 

1  Widstoe,  John  A. :    Dry  Farming,  p.  155. 

a  Nebraska    Agricultural    Experiment    Station,    Annual    Report,    1911, 
p.  97. 


DEPTH  OF  CULTIVATION  77 

Experiments  by  Gates  3  and  Cox,  recently  reported,  verify  in 
general  the  above  conclusions. 

Effect  of  Weeds.  —  Weeds  not  only  take  up  moisture  but  avail- 
able plant-food  as  well.  As  the  available  plant-food  in  a  soil  is  much 
below  the  needs  of  the  crop,  all  taken  by  weeds  directly  robs  the  crop. 
Where  weeds  are  allowed  to  grow  the  yield  is  almost  nothing,  while 
simply  scraping  the  weeds  off,  as  indicated  in  above  experiments, 
results  in  yields  comparable  with  thorough  cultivation.  The  follow- 
ing results  for  one  year  show  effect  of  weeds  : 


Reduced  Yields  Due  to  Weeds 

Weeds  Weeds 

allowed  scraped 

to  grow  off  cultivation 


Place  of  experiment  allowed  scraped  Shallow- 

off 


New   Hampshire   Station    (Bulletin 

71,  L900)    ...................        17  ...  80.0 

Illinois  Station  (Bulletin  31,  1894)     none  28.7        .         36.1 

The  function  of  interculture  for  corn  then  appears  to  be  (1) 
to  conserve  moisture  and  destroy  weeds  up  to  the  time  the  plants  pro- 
tect the  land,  and  after  that  (2)  principally  to  destroy  weeds.  Broad, 
flat  shovels  or  shears  that  merely  shave  the  surface  are  very  effective 
for  killing  weeds. 

The  above  principles  apply  to  all  cultivated  crops.  The  more 
nearly  the  field  approaches  a  fallow  field  the  more  effective  is  cultiva- 
tion for  conserving  moisture,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  more 
the  condition  approaches  that  prevailing  in  a  wheat  field,  the 
less  need  there  is  for  conservation  of  moisture.  For  example,  an 
onion  field  is  not  only  exposed  but  onion  roots  are  very  short,  and 
cultivation  among  onions  is  very  important  in  conserving  moisture. 
The  same  is  true  of  many  vegetable  crops. 

Depth  of  Cultivation.  —  There  is  no  real  necessity  of  cultivating 
deep  if  the  work  can  be  done  while  the  weeds  are  small.  Deep  culti- 
vation with  wide  shovels  will  often  be  necessary  to  cover  up  and 
destroy  large  weeds. 

The  depth  of  cultivation  should  be  regulated  so  as  not  to  destroy 
corn  roots  (Fig.  29).  In  heavy  soils  and  wet  seasons  roots  are  often 
very  shallow,  from  one  to  two  inches  below  the  surface  ;  in  dry  seasons 
with  loose  porous  soils,  the  upper  roots  will  be  three  to  four  inches 

3U.  S.  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  257. 


78 


TILLAGE  FOR  CORN 


below  the  surface.  These  represent  the  extremes  in  depth  of  surface 
roots,  and  cultivation  should  be  regulated  accordingly.  Cultivation 
deep  enough  to  destroy  roots  has  always  decreased  yield  when  com- 
pared with  more  shallow  tillage. 

Frequency  of  Cultivation. — Frequency  of  cultivation  depends 
largely  on  the  weeds  to  be  killed.     Rarely  have  experiments  shown  a 


FIG.  29. — Drawing  showing  the  distribution  of  corn  roots  in  the  soil. 

profit  for  more  than  four  cultivations,  or  for  continued  cultivation 
after  corn  was  in  ear,  if  free  from  weeds.  At  the  Illinois  Station, 
"  ordinary  "  cultivation  (about  four  times)  was  compared  with  fre- 
quent cultivation.  Plats  were  also  cultivated  the  same  number  of 
times,  both  deep  and  shallow.4  Results  were  as  follows : 

Results  of  Different  Methods  of  Cultivation 

Average  yield 

Kind  of  cultivation  for  five  years 

Bushels  per  acre 

Frequent  (4  plats)    68.6 

Ordinary  ( 4  plats )    68.5 

Shallow  (4  plats)    71.5 

Deep    (4  plats)    65.6 

'  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  31,  356. 


QUESTIONS  79 

In  a  former  book  the  author  made  the  following  summarized 
statement  on  the  object  of  intertillage  for  corn  5 :  "  We  may  there- 
fore conclude  from  the  data  presented  that  up  to  the  time  when  corn 
shades  the  ground,  and  the  field  is  comparatively  fallow,  cultivation 
conserves  some  moisture  as  in  any  fallow  soil.  After  the  corn  crop 
is  thoroughly  established  and  a  layer  of  surface  roots  intercepts 
capillary  moisture  from  below,  the  principal  service  of  cultivation  is 
to  destroy  weeds." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  evolution  of  tillage  tools. 

2.  Give'the  two  most  important  reasons  for  tillage. 

3.  Compare  the   loss  of  water  by  evaporation   from  a  bare   field  and  a 

field  in  crop. 

4.  What  appears  to  be  the  most  important  reason  for  cultivation  in  a 

corn  field? 

5.  Name    cultivated    crops    where    cultivation    would    probably    be   more 

necessary  than  in  corn. 

6.  How  should  depth  of  cultivation  be  regulated? 

7.  How  frequently  may  corn  be  cultivated  with  profit? 

5  Corn  Crops,  p.  212. 


CHAPTER  XI 
HARVESTING  AND  UTILIZING  CORN 

Methods  of  Harvesting. — The  following  practices  are  general 
in  harvesting  a  part  or  all  of  the  corn  crop. 

1.  The  whole  plant  harvested  for  fodder  or  silage. 

2.  Ears  only  harvested,  the  stalks  left  in  the  field. 

3.  Topping:   the  tops  cut  off  above  the  ear  while  green,  so  the 
ear  may  ripen  on  the  stalk. 

4.  Stripping :  Leaves  stripped  off  while  green. 

In  the  early  history  of  corn  culture  in  New  England,  it  was  the 
general  custom  to  harvest  the  entire  plant  for  fodder,  and,  when  well 
cured,  husk  out  the  ears. 

In  the  southern  States  the  custom  early  became  general  of  strip- 
ping off  only  the  lower  leaves  and  "  topping  ".  the  upper  part ;  that 
is%  cutting  off  the  plant  above  the  ear.  The  ear  was  then  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  stalk  until  mature,  then  "snapped"  off  and  stored 
in  the  husk  to  protect  from  insects.  The  ears  were  husked  as  used. 

The  above  customs  are  at  present  the  common  practices  in  both 
New  England  and  the  South.  The  acreage  is  generally  small  and 
the  entire  crop  is  saved. 

With  the  settlement  of  the  present  "  Corn  Belt "  States  corn 
culture  was  extensive  from  the  first.  There  was  no  need  for  coarse 
forage,  so  only  the  ears  were  harvested.  In  the  Corn  Belt  only  a  very 
small  percentage  of  the  stalks  is  harvested.  However,  the  custom  of 
harvesting  a  part  of  the  stalks  is  increasing,  especially  in  dairy 
regions  where  corn  is  used,  for  silage.  The  shortage  of  hay  has  also 
brought  about  an  increase  in  the  use  of  corn  stover  as  a  substitute. 

Pasturing  Corn  Stalks. — It  is  the  custom  in  the  Corn  Belt,  also 
in  the  South,  to  turn  in  cattle,  horses,  or  sheep,  during  the  winter 
months,  on  the  stalk  fields  after  the  grain  has  been  harvested.  There 
is  no  good  data  as  to  the  relative  amount  of  forage  furnished  by  an 
acre  of  corn  stalks,  when  cut  and  cured  or  when  pastured  after  the 
grain  has  been  harvested. 
80 


COST  OF  SAVING  STOVER 


81 


In  a  general  way,  the  feeding  value  of  the  stalk  fields  approxi- 
mates from  one-third  to  one-half  the  value  of  the  cured  fodder. 

Cost  of  Saving  Stover. — According  to  experiments  by  the 
Minnesota  Station  1  it  costs  $3.64  an  acre  more  to  harvest  and  shred 
the  stover  than  to  harvest  only  the  ears.  Zintheo  2  estimated  from 
data  collected  that  it  cost  from  $1.18  to  $1.50  per  acre  to  harvest  the 
fodder,  and  about  1.6  cents  per  bushel  more  to  husk  the  grain  from 
fodder  than  standing  stalks,  or  a  total  cost  of  $2.00  per  acre  to  secure 


FIG.  30. — Harvesting  corn  by  hand. 

the  fodder.  With  a  yield  of  ll/2  tons  of  stover  per  acre,  stover 
would  cost  from  $1.50  to  $2.50  per  ton  for  labor,  according  to  the 
above  figures. 

Whether  it  will  pay  to  harvest  corn  stover  at  the  above  prices 
will  depend  on  the  cost  of  producing  other  forage,  as  timothy,  clover, 
or  sorghums.  In  general  a  ton  of  good  stover  is  estimated  to  be 

1  Wilson  and  Warburton :    Field  Crops,  p.  85. 

3  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Experiment  Station,  173,  46. 
6 


82  HARVESTING  AND  UTILIZING  CORN 

worth  a  little  less  than  one-half  a  ton  of  clover  or  alfalfa  and  about 
three-fourths  of  a  ton  of  timothy.  It  would  not  be  desirable  to  re- 
place all  the  hay  ration  with  corn  stover,  but  when  hay  is  worth  $10 
or  more  a  ton  a  part  of  the  hay  ration  can  profitably  be  substituted  by 
corn  fodder. 

Harvesting  Corn  Fodder. — Corn  fodder  is  commonly  har- 
vested by  hand  (Fig.  30),  where  the  acreage  is  small  or  the  land  is 
rough.  With  ten  acres  or  less  to  cut  it  would  not  pay  to  own  a 
binder,  as  the  depreciation  and  interest  on  the  binder  (which  costs 
about  $125)  would  increase  the  cost  too  much.  However,  one  can 


FIG.  31. — Harvesting  corn  with  a  corn  binder. 

often  hire  a  binder  to  do  the  cutting,  at  about  the  same  cost  as  by 
hand,  with  the  additional  advantage  of  having  the  fodder  bound. 

Sled  harvesters,  costing  from  $5  to  $15,  are  cheap  and  satisfac- 
tory. These  machines  cut  one  or  two  rows  at  a  time  and  are  very 
satisfactory  where  the  corn  is  to  be  shocked  and  husked  in  the  field. 
Also"  the  harvesters  built  on  the  same  principle,  but  mounted  on 
wheels,  are  in  common  use. 

Corn  Harvesters  and  Binders. — The  attachment  of  a  binding 
apparatus  to  a  corn  harvester  was  first  successfully  applied  about 
1895.  Since  then  the  corn  binder,  as  it  is  called,  has  generally 
replaced  other  methods  (Fig.  31).  This  is  especially  true  where  the 


WHEN  TO  HARVEST  FODDER 


83 


fodder  is  to  be  put  in  silos,  as  it  facilitates  handling,  a  rather 
laborious  task  with  green  loose  fodder. 

Shocking  Fodder. — Where  the  fodder  is  cut  by  hand  with 
knives  it  is  usually  set  directly  into  shocks  of  about  10  to  14  hills 
square.  This  is  about  as  large  a  shock  as  can  be  depended  on  to 
cure  out  properly.  Later  the  ears  may  be  husked  and  several  shocks 
set  together  if  the  fodder  is  to  remain  in  the  field.  The  large  shock 
protects  the  fodder  better,  especially  if  it  is  intended  to  leave  it  in 
the  field  for  several  months. 

When  cut  by  sled  harvesters,  or  wheel  harvesters  built  on  the 
same  principle,  the  green  fodder  may  be  immediately  set  into  shocks, 
or  left  in  piles  on  the  ground  until  half  dried,  then  set  up  into  very 
large  shocks  and  securely  tied.  The  same  plan  may  be  followed 
with  bound  fodder. 

Hauling  and  Storing  Fodder. — Corn  fodder  is  commonly 
hauled  in  on  a  rather  damp  day,  as  leaves  are  easily  broken  off  when 
very  dry.  The  fodder  may  be  stacked,  but  care  must  be  observed 
that  it  is  well  cured  and  that  the  stacks  are  narrow,  as  it  is  very  apt 
to  develop  spontaneous  heat  to  a  high  temperature.  For  the  same 
reason  care  must  be  exercised  when  storing  in  barns.  Frequently 
the  fodder  is  hauled  and  set  up  in  a  yard,  only  one  tier  in  depth. 

When  to  Harvest  Fodder. — It  has  been  clearly  shown  by  many 
tests  that  the  yield  of  dry  matter  increases  up  to  maturity.  This  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  table,  which  is  taken  from  results  secured 
by  the  Michigan  Station  3 : 

Yield  per  Acre  of  Green  Corn  Fodder  and  Dry  Matter 


Time  of  cutting 

Green 
fodder 

Dry 

matter 

Per  cent 
dry 
matter 

Per  cent 
water 

August  10  (tasseled)  

pounds 

21,203 

pound 

3  670 

17  3 

82  7 

August  25  (in  milk) 

25  493 

5  320 

209 

7Q  1 

September  6  (glazing) 

25  865 

7  110 

725 

70    K. 

September  15  (ripe)  .  . 

23  007 

8  020 

34  8 

fi^  9 

While  the  corn  plant  was  full  height  August  10,  when  tasseled 
out,  yet  it  had  developed  at  that  time  less  than  one-half  its  dry 
matter.  Also  note  the  high  water  content  at  the  early  stages. 

3  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  97,  12. 


I 
84 


HARVESTING  AND   UTILIZING   CORN 


It  has  also  been  shown  that  the  dry  matter  improves  in  quality  as 
the  corn  matures.  There  is  an  increasing  proportion  of  starch  and 
sugar. 

Relative  Proportion  of  Parts. — In  good  corn,  that  will  make  50 
bushels  per  acre,  about  one-half  the  dry  weight  is  represented  by  the 
ears  and  one-half  by  the  stalk  and  leaves.  This  does  not  represent 
the  relative  feeding  value,  as  the  ear  is  more  valuable  pound  for 
pound  than  the  other  portions.  Feeding  experiments  show  from 
GO  to  70  per  cent  of  the  digestible  nutrients  in  the  ears. 

With  low  yields  the  proportion  of  ear  is  much  less.  For  ex- 
ample, at  the^  Indiana  Station4  records  were  kept  in  one  series  of 
experiments  for  a  number  of  years,  on  the  yield  of  ears  and  stover. 
Some  years  were  favorable  and  the  yield  was  good  and  other  years 
were  adverse.  Results  were  as  follows : 

Proportion  of  Grain  Loss  With  Light  Yields 


Seasonable  years,  1888-1891 

Dry  years,  1893-1894 

Yield  per  acre 

Percentage 
of  ears 

Yield  per  acre 

Percentage 
of  ears 

Grain, 

bushels 

Stalks, 
pounds 

Grain, 
bushels 

Stalks, 
pounds 

55.7 

4200 

48.3 

18.6 

3912 

25.2 

Therefore  fodder  or  silage  from  a  large  crop  of  corn  is  more 
valuable  ton  for  ton  than  from  low-yielding  corn. 

Husking  Ears. — Ears  are  commonly  husked  by  hand  from  the 
fodder  or  standing  corn.  To  aid  in  this  a  "  husking  peg  "  or  hook 
is  used  on  the  hand.  When  fodder  is  shredded  the  husking  is  com- 
monly done  by  the  machine.  There  is  also  a  machine  for  husking 
from  the  standing  stalks,  but  this  is  not  in  general  use  as  it  is  only 
very  little  cheaper  than  hand  husking. 

Storing  Ears. — In  the  central  and  northern  States  the  ears  are 
commonly  stored  in  ventilated  cribs,  until  thoroughly  dried.  The 
corn  may  then  be  shelled  out  and  stored  in  bins.  It  is  not  safe  to 
store  shelled  corn  in  bins  or  even  ear  corn  in  cribs,  if  the  corn  has  18 


Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  64,  4. 


HOW  SILAGE  IS  MADE  85 

per  cent  moisture.  When  dry  (13  per  cent  moisture)  many  thou- 
sand bushels  may  be  safely  stored  in  a  tight  bin. 

Shrinkage  of  Corn  in  Curing. — There  are  two  causes  of  shrink- 
age in  stored  corn,  (1)  loss  of  water,  (2)  loss  of  dry  matter.  During 
the  first  12  months  after  harvest  ear  corn  will  lose  from  5  to  20  per 
cent  in  weight,  depending  principally  on  how  dry  when  husked. 
Air-dry  corn  one  year  old  will  have  from  10  to  14  per  cent  moisture, 
depending  on  the  climate.  After  that  the  degree  of  moisture  will 
vary  with  the  degree  of  moisture  in  the  air.  It  has  been  noted  that 
corn  shipped  from  a  very  dry  climate  to  a  more  humid  one,  would 
actually  gain  in  weight  in  transit. 

There  is  also  another  loss  due  to  the  very  slow  decomposition  or 
oxidation  of  dry  matter,  amounting  to  1  to  3  per  cent  in  a  year. 

In  silos  this  loss  of  dry  matter  is  very  high,  amounting  in  some 
cases  to  as  much  as  20  per  cent.  In  fodder  corn,  in  addition  to  some 
oxidation  that  may  take  place,  there  is  always  considerable  loss  of 
leaves  in  handling.  Ordinarily,  the  loss  in  fodder  corn  before  it  is 
fed  amounts  to  10  to  20  per  cent. 

Cost  of  Producing  Corn. — When  the  Prairie  States  were  first 
broken  up,  corn  was  produced  very  cheaply  in  the  corn  belt.  The 
yields  were  large  with  a  minimum  of  labor.  Data  taken  in  the  corn 
belt  from  1885-1895  show  an  acre  cost  of '$6  to  $8  and  a  bushel  cost 
of  about  20  cents.  From  1895  to  1905  various  records  show  the 
•acre  cost  to  be  $10  to  $14,  and  bushel  cost  from  24  to  30  cents.  In 
the  eastern  States  the  cost  has  always  been  much  higher  than  this, 
ranging  from  40  to  50  cents  per  bushel. 

Data  collected  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the 
year  1909,  show  an  average  cost  for  the  United  States  of  37.9  cents 
per  bushel,  while  for  Illinois  and  Iowa,  the  two  leading  corn  States, 
the  bushel  cost  was  31  and  30  cents,  respectively. 

How  Silage  is  Made. — Vegetable  matter  is  caused  to  decay 
through  the  presence  of  bacteria  or  molds.  Two  methods  are  used 
to  preserve  materials,  (1)  by  drying,  as  moisture  is  necessary  for 
growth  of  bacteria  or  molds,  (2)  by  heating  to  destroy,  and  some 
preservative  to  keep  out  the  organisms. 

The  preservation  of  silage  is  by  the  latter  method.  The  green 
forage  is  usually  cut  into  short  lengths,  of  one  inch  or  less,  so  it  will 


86  HARVESTING  AND  UTILIZING  CORN 

pack  closely.  Natural  heat  soon  develops,  which  destroys  organisms. 
At  the  same  time  the  air  is  used  up  and  carbon  dioxide  gas,  given  off 
by  the  decomposing  silage,  takes  its  place.  The  carbon  dioxide  is  a 
preservative,  and  no  further  decomposition  can  take  place.  How- 
ever, the  carbon  dioxide  gas  is  heavier  than  air,  so  the  silo  must  be 
tight  or  the  gas  will  leak  out  and  air  coming  in  will  cause  further 
decomposition.  Any  kind  of  green  material  can  be  preserved  in  a 
silo.  Even  part  dry  material  can  be  so  preserved,  if  it  is  well  wet 
down  and  closely  packed.  Corn  fodder  which  has  been  cut  a  week 
or  more,  or  frosted,  is  sometimes  kept  in  a  silo  by  wetting  down. 

USES  OF  CORN 

The  principal  reason  corn  has  such  extensive  cultivation  is  due  to 
its  great  value  as  stock  feed,  and  the  fact  that  it  yields  more  grain  per 
acre  than  any  other  cereal.  The  great  development  of  the  fat  stock 
industry  in  the  Middle  West  is  due  largely  to  the  supply  of  corn 
for  feed. 

Perhaps  nine-tenths  of  the  corn  crop  is  fed  directly  to  stock. 
The  other  one-tenth  is  manufactured  into  a  great  variety  of  products, 
but  mostly  food  products.  The  three  most  important  uses  of  corn  in 
the  arts  is  the  manufacture  of  glucose,  cereal  foods,  and  alcohol. 

Glucose  is  made  by  first  degerminating  the  corn,  then  treating 
the  starchy  portion  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  which  converts  the 
starch  to  glucose. 

Cereal  foods  are  of  two  classes,  as  the  ( 1 )  corn  meal  and  hominy 
products  and  the  (2)  cooked  and  flaked  "  breakfast"  foods.  Corn' 
meal  is  made  in  two  ways.  The  whole  corn  may  be  ground  and  only 
the  coarse  parts,  consisting  largely  of  bran,  sifted  out.  This  meal 
contains  considerable  germ.  The  germ  meal  present  gives  its  own 
flavor,  which  is  rather  agreeable  but  makes  the  meal  more  difficult 
to  keep.  Degerminated  meal  is  made  by  cracking  and  removing 
the  germ.  The  cracked  product,  after  germ  and  hull  are  removed, 
is  called  hominy.  This  coarse  hominy  may  be  sold  in  this  way,  or 
ground  further  into  meal.  This  is  commonly  called  "  fancy  "  meal, 
and  is  the  kind  most  commonly  on  the  market. 

Flaked  cereal  foods  are  made  by  cooking  the  hominy,  then  rolling 
out  into  thin  flakes,  and  further  cooking  in  a  dry  oven. 


QUESTIONS  87 

Starch  is  made  by  first  removing  germs,  grinding  fine,  and  then 
washing  the  starch  out  by  water. 

The  germs,  removed  in  the  manufacture  of  glucose,  meal,  or 
starch,  are  usually  pressed  until  all  the  oil  is  extracted.  This  oil  is 
used  as  a  salad  oil,  in  paints,  or  is  vulcanized  as  a  substitute  for 
rubber.  The  residue  after  oil  is  extracted  is  corn  oil  cake  and  makes 
a  valuable  stock  feed,  being  very  high  in  protein. 

Distillery  products  are  the  residue  as  a  result  of  distilling  alco- 
holic beverages.  These  products  are  practically  all^used  as  stock 
feeds. 

Pop-corn  is  either  eaten  fresh  as  popped  or  manufactured  into  a 
variety  of  confectionery  products. 

Sweet  corn  is  commonly  eaten  green,  from  the  cob,  or  cut  from 
the  cob  and  canned.  Canning  corn  is  an  important  commercial 
industry. 

Importance  as  Food. — In  Colonial  days  corn  was  an  important 
article  of  food,  and  generally  used.  However,  with  the  development 
of  wheat  culture,  corn  has  been  almost  entirely  superseded  in  all  but 
the  southern  States.  In  the  South,  corn  bread  is  still  used 

extensively. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  the  customary  methods  of  harvesting  corn. 

2.  Where  are  the  stalks  generally  harvested  and  where  not  harvested? 

3.  Under  what  conditions  is  it  profitable  to  harvest  corn  stalks? 

4.  Describe  what  you  regard  as  a  good  method  of  curing  and  keeping  corn 

fodder. 

5.  How  would  you  determine  best  time  to  harvest  fodder? 

6.  Explain  change  in  water  content. 

7.  What  proportion  by  weight  in  the  ears? 

8.  What  proportion  of  feeding  value? 

9.  How  dry  should  corn  be  for  storage? 

10.  What  shrinkage  is  expected  in  storage  of  ears?     Storage  of  silage? 

11.  Figure  out  what  it  costs  to  produce  corn  in  your  community. 

12.  Explain  the  principles  of  silage  making. 

13.  How  is  the  corn  crop  utilized? 

14.  Name  some  of  the  important  manufactured  products. 


CHAPTER  XII 
CORN  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES 

CORN  is  practically  free  from  the  attacks  of  insects  and  diseases. 
There  is  no  disease  that  does  great  damage,  though  occasionally  corn 
smut  may  do  considerable  damage.  Insects  are  also  easily  con- 
trolled with  the  exception  of  the  corn  weevils  in  southern  States. 

Corn  Insects  Below  Ground. — Insects  attacking  corn  may  be 
grouped  in  two  classes,  as  (1)  those  working  below  ground  and  (2) 
those  above  ground.  The  corn  rootworm  and  root-louse  are  most 
important  of  those  below  ground.  Both  of  these  can  be  easily  con- 
trolled by  rotation.  Both  live  over  in  the  soil,  and  usually  do  not 
become  very  destructive  until  the  land  has  been  in  corn  three  years 
in  succession.  A  change  to  any  other  kind  of  crop  for  one  to  two 
years  is  effective  in  destroying  them. 

Two  other  insects,  the  wireworm  and  the  grub  worm,  are  not 
peculiar  to  corn,  and  therefore  are  not  controlled  so  easily  by  rota- 
tion. In  fact,  both  are  apt  to  be  more  destructive  after  sod  than  at 
any  other  time.  The  wireworm  does  most  damage  by  boring  into 
young  plants,  soon  after  they  come  up.  The  grubworm  lives  under 
the  corn  plant  most  of  the  summer,  eating  off  the  roots.  The  only 
remedy  suggested  is  to  fall  plow  the  land,  late  in  the  season,  to 
expose  the  larvae  and  worms  to  winter  killing. 

Cutworms  do  some  damage  to  young  corn,  and  occasionally  may 
completely  destroy  a  stand.  Usually  the  cutworms  pupate  in 
June,  so  a  second  planting  made,  running  the  rows  half  way  be- 
tween the  first  rows,  will  usually  escape  with  little  damage. 

Insects  Above  Ground. — Earworms  and  Mil  bugs  ordinarily 
do  only  slight  damage.  Occasionally  the  earworm  may  damage  to 
considerable  degree  the  market  value  of  sweet  corn  to  be  sold  green 
on  the  ear.  , 

Migratory  insects  that  occasionally  damage  corn  are  chinch 
bugs,  army  worms,  and  grasshoppers.  Chinch  bugs  and  army 
worms,  moving  on  the  ground,  can  be  prevented  from  entering  a 
88 


QUESTIONS  89 

cornfield  by  plowing  a  ditch,  and  maintaining  a  dust  barrier  in  the 
ditch  by  dragging  a  log  or  harrow  to  and  fro. 

Bftds  and  Rodents. — Crows  pull  up  green  corn  to  secure  the 
grain  as  food.  They  do  damage  principally  in  regions  where  the 
corn  area  is  comparatively  small.  Scarecrows  of  various  kinds  will 
keep  them  away,  if  placed  close  enough  together.  Coal  tar  on  the 
seed  is  a  deterrent,  though  not  a  sure  preventive.  The  tar  is  applied 
by  dipping  a  wooden  paddle  in  the  hot  tar  and  stirring*  in  the  seed 
corn  until  each  grain  is  coated.  It  may  be  necessary  to  add  a  little 
meal,  sand,  or  sawdust  to  keep  the  corn  from  sticking. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  important  corn  insect  enemies  working  below  ground. 

2.  Can  you  suggest  methods  of  control  ? 

3.  What  important  insects  work  above  ground  ? 

4.  Can  you  suggest  methods  of  controlling  crows  and  rodents? 


CHAPTER  XIII 
POP-CORN  AND  SWEET  CORN 

THE  general  information  given  in  regard  to  the  culture  of  field 
corn  applies  to  the  production  of  pop-  and  sweet  corn.  The  culture 
differs  in  only  a  few  particulars. 

POP-CORN 

Pop-corn  is  raised  wherever  field  corn  is  grown,  but  as  a  com- 
mercial crop  it  is  produced  principally  in  Iowa  and  Nebraska.  The 
plants  being  small,  it  is  planted  about  twice  as  thick  as  field  corn. 
It  is  slower  in  growth  and  more  delicate,  requiring  greater  care  and 
skill  in  cultivating. 

Varieties. — There  are  two  distinct  types  of  pop-corn.  One  is 
known  as  rice  pop-corn  and  is  distinguished  by  a  sharp  pointed  tip 
on  the  kernel.  The  other  is  the  pearl  pop-corn,  the  kernels  being 
round  and  smooth.  Market  demand  is  mostly  for  the  rice  variety  of 
white  color,  and  this  is  grown  almost  exclusively  for  commerce.  In 
color,  there  are  red,  yellow,  and  blue  varieties  of  both  rice  and  pearl 
pop-corn. 

In  size,  the  ordinary  ear  of  white  rice  is  four  to  five  inches  in 
length,  but  certain  strains  are  larger ;  while  some  varieties  of  pearl 
pop-corn  attain  a  length  of  eight  inches.  Tom  Thumb  is  a  dwarf 
variety  of  pearl  pop-corn  with  stalks  not  much  more  than  thirty 
inches  in  height,  and  ears  about  two  inches  long.  This  is  the 
smallest  variety  of  corn  known.  Care  must  be  taken  to  grow  only 
varieties  that  mature  well  before  frost. 

Harvesting. — Pop-corn  is  usually  allowed  to  ripen  and  dry  out 
well  on  the  stalk,  before  harvesting.  It  is  then  stored  in  well-ven- 
tilated cribs  until  air  dry,  when  it  is  shelled  and  sacked  for  market. 
A  good  yield  is  2000  pounds  of  shelled  corn  per  acre. 

Marketing. — In  centers  where  pop-corn  is  grown  extensively,  as 
Sac  County,  Iowa,  and  Loup  County,  Nebraska,  special  elevators  and 
storage  houses  for  handling  the  crop  have  been  built.  It  is  usually 
sold  in  car  lots,  either  to  wholesale  merchants  or  to  confectionery 
manufacturers. 
90 


EXERCISES  91 

SWEET   CORN" 

Sweet  corn  is  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities  as  a  truck  crop, 
to  be  sold  green  on  the  ear.  It  is  also  grown  very  extensively  in 
some  places  as  a  canning  crop.  New  York,  Illinois,  Maryland, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio  are  the  principal  States  in  acreage  of  sweet 
corn. 

Varieties. — For  canning  and  general  crop,  large  late  varieties 
are  generally  used,  requiring  100  to  110  days  to  produce  roasting 
ears.  However,  the  market  gardener  requires  early  corn  for  at  least 
a  part  of  the  crop,  and  great  effort  has  been  made  to  develop  early 
varieties.  There  are  many  varieties  that  will  produce  good  ears  in 
60  days  from  time  of  planting. 

Harvesting. — Green  corn  is  always  harvested  by  snapping  the 
ear,  and  selling  in  the  husk.  It  takes  care  to  tell  by  feeling  whether 
the  ear  is  just  right  to  harvest,  without  tearing  back  the  husk.  Much 
corn  is  marketed  too  green. 

For  canning,  the  corn  is  hauled  to  the  factory  in  the  husk  and 
sold  by  the  ton.  Yield  varies  from  three  to  five  tons  per  acre,  and 
price  from  $6  to  $9  per  ton.  Four  tons  at  $8  is  considered  satis- 
factory. 

At  the  factory  the  corn  is  both  husked  and  cut  from  the  cob  by 
machinery. 

EXERCISES 

Study  of  Corn  Types. — Materials. — Ears  representing  the  five  prin- 
cipal types  of  corn ;  also  grains  of  each  that  have  been  prepared  by  soaking 
for  24  hours. 

Make  drawings  of  grains  of  each  of  tha  above  types,  showing  the  relative 
proportion  of  (1)  hard  starch;  (2)  soft  starch;  and  (3)  germ. 

I.  Use  the  following  system  in  sketching  the  parts : 

Hard  starch=:Parallel  lines. 
Soft  starch— Blank. 
Germ— Solid  penciling. 

First  Drawing. — A  view  of  the  germ  side  of  the  kernel,  after  shaving 
with  a  sharp  knife,  exposing  the  germ. 

II.  Make  a  thin  longitudinal  section  of  a  dent  corn  germ,  by  splitting 
the  kernel  cross-wise  of  the  dent.    Examine  under  a  microscope  or  magnify- 
ing lens. 

Make  a  drawing  showing  the  vegetative  portion  of  the  germ  imbedded 
in  the  scutellum,  labeling  all  parts  carefully. 

Divisions  of  the  embryo  are: 

Scutellum,  enclosing  vegetative  parts. 

Vegetative  parts:  Plumule,  or  plant  tip;  node,  point  of  attachment; 
radicle,  or  root  tip. 


92  POP-CORN  AND  SWEET  CORN 

III.  Draw  a  kernel  in  the  first  stages  of  growth. 

IV.  Draw  a  kernel  in  advanced  stage  of  germination,  showing  tem- 
porary roots,  plumule,  radicle,  and  root-hairs. 

V.  From  your  readings  in  the  text,  prepare  answers  to  the  following 
questions : 

1.  What  is  the  function  of  the  endosperm,  scutellum,  plumule,  radicle, 
root-hairs  ? 

2.  Where  do  the  temporary  roots  develop  ?     Where  the  permanent  roots  ? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  field  corn  and   pop-corn   culture. 

2.  Describe  the  two  principal  types  of  pop-corn. 

3.  Where  is  pop-corn  grown  extensively? 

4.  Name  the  regi'ons  where  sweet  corn  is  grown,, 

5.  What  is  a  fair  yield  of  sweet  corn  ? 


CHAPTER  XIV 
CORN  JUDGING 

CORN  judging  is  the  art  of  selecting  an  ear  or  exhibit  of  ears,  ac- 
cording to  a  standard  of  perfection.  With  well-established  breeds  of 
live  stock,  recognized  types  are  accepted  for  each  breed.  In  judging 
corn,  the  attempt  was  made  to  establish  a  standard  for  each  variety 
to  be  judged.  This  plan  has  not  succeeded  with  corn  so  well  as 
with  live  stock,  due  to  the  influence  of  soil  and  climate  on  the  type. 
In  fact,  it  was  soon  recognized  that  some  change  in  type  was  desir- 
able if  the  variety  was  to  have  a  wide  adaptation.  However,  certain 
type  characters  should  be  permanent,  such  as  color,  and  within  rea- 
sonable limits  other  characters,  such  as  shape  of  grain  or  indentation, 
should  be  fairly  constant. 

While  judges  do  not  pay  strict  attention  to  variety  standards,  yet 
certain  characters  have  come  to  be  recognized  as  essential  in  all  good 
samples  of  corn. 

These  characters  may  be  classed  in  two  groups,  as  those  pertain- 
ing to  soundness  and  maturity,  and  those  pertaining  to  fancy  points. 
Maturity  and  soundness  have  to  do  with  the  selection  of  all  seed  corn, 
but  the  fancy  points  do  not  necessarily  have  to  do  with  seed  selection. 

PRACTICAL   CHARACTERS 

Maturity. — It  is  important  that  corn  should  fully  mature  before 
frost  comes.  Immature  corn  does  not  keep  well,  and  quickly  loses 
its  germinating  qualities.  The  immature  ears  are  usually  loose,  so 
the  ear  may  be  twisted.  The  kernels  are  also  likely  to  be  shrunken, 
especially  toward  the  tip. 

Soundness. — This  quality  has  to  do  with  any  injury  that  may 
have  occurred  to  the  corn,  through  the  action  of  fungus  diseases, 
decomposition,  or  loss  of  germination.  Loss  of  germination  is  most 
important,  as  it  has  such  an  important  bearing  on  yield.  The  in- 
spection of  corn  for  germination  has  been  discussed  heretofore 
(p.  63). 

93 


94 


CORN  JUDGING 


FIG.  32. — An  ideal  ear  of  dent  corn 
of  fancy  type. 


FANCY  CHARACTERS 

Under  fancy  characters  are  included 
all  those  considerations  that  have  to  do 
with  the  symmetry  and  uniformity  of 
the  ears.  This  includes  shape  of  ears  and 
kernels,  straightness  of  rows,  and  filling 
over  butt  and  tip  (Fig.  32).  These 
points  have  some  practical  value,  as  they 
indicate  the  care  and  skill  with  which 
the  corn  has  been  selected  and  grown, 
but  do  not  always  have  a  direct  bearing 
on  ability  to  yield,  and  hence  are  of  sec- 
ondary importance.  In  general,  the 
standards  which  have  been  adopted  for 
dent  corn  are  described  as  follows : 

Shape  of  Ear. — The  shape  should 
be,  in  general,  cylindrical,  with  a  cir- 
cumference about  three-fourths  of  the 
length.  There  are  less  irregularities  in 
a  cylindrical  ear  than  in  a  tapering.  An 
ear  is  tapering  from  two  causes,  (1) 
extra  rows  in  the  butt  end,  or  (2)  the 
kernels  become  shorter  toward  the  tip. 

Butts  of  Ear. — Regular,  with  as 
few  misshapen  kernels  as  possible. 
The  butt  should  not  be  enlarged  or 
tapering,  but  almost  the  same  circum- 
ference as  the  middle.  A  large,  coarse 
shank  increases  the  difficulty  of  husk- 
ing. If  the  shank  is  too  small  the  ear 
is  apt  to  drop  off. 

Tips  of  Ears.— The  full  length  of 
kernel  without  much  change  in  size 
should  be  carried  up  to  near  the  tip. 
The  rows  should  be  regular  and  carried 
well  over  the  tip,  so  not  more  than  a 
small  tip  of  cob  is  exposed. 


SHAPE  OF  KERNELS 


95 


Shape  of  Kernels. — In  dent  corns,  the  proportion  of  length  to 
width  varies.  In  some  early  varieties  the  kernel  is  as  broad  as  long, 
while  in  most  of  the  very  large,  late  dents  the  kernel  is  only  one-half 
as  broad  as  long.  Some  allowance  must  be  made  for  variety,  but,  in 

" 


FIG.  33. — Shape  of  ear.    On  left  a  cylindrical  ear;  center,  tapering  ear;  right,  tapering  butt. 

general,  the  kernels  should  be  much  longer  than  broad,  and  so  shaped 
that  they  fit  very  neatly,  at  tip  and  crown,  with  no  wide  spaces  be- 
tween. Space  between  the  kernels  at  the  cob  usually  indicates  poor 
growth  or  immaturity. 


96  CORN  JUDGING 

Character  of  Germ. — Generally  a  large  germ  will  give  a  more 
vigorous  plantlet  than  a  smaller  germ.  The  germ  should  be  of  both 
good  color  and  texture.  Any  discoloration  is  likely  to  mean  poor 
germination.  The  texture  and  color  are  determined  by  cutting  with 
a  knife. 

Color. — In  some  cases,  there  is  a  recognized  shade  of  white  or 
yellow,  which  should  be  considered.  In  all  cases,  the  kernel  should 
be  bright  and  with  a  good  luster  when  shelled.  Mixed  or  off-colored 
grains  indicate  hybrids  and  are,  therefore,  undesirable  in  fancy 
corn,  though  they  may  not  injure  yield.  A  uniform  bright  color  of 
cob  is  also  desired. 

The  Score  Card. — To  facilitate  judging,  score  cards  have  been 
prepared.  Score  cards  differ  in  the  number  of  points  considered  and 
the  relative  value  assigned,  depending  somewhat  on  local  conditions. 
Expert  judges  seldom  use  the  score  card  except  for  very  close  com- 
parison, as  they  learn  by  practice  to  value  the  ears  readily  at  a 
glance. 

Terms  for  Describing  Corn. — In  describing  plants  or  animals 
it  is  first  necessary  to  come  to  a  common  understanding  as  to  the 
exact  meaning  of  technical  terms.  For  example,  in  describing  corn 
the  terms  "  rounded  kernels  "  or  "  keystone  kernels  "  should  convey 
an  exact  meaning. 

Following  are  the  descriptive  terms  generally  used : 

A.  Ear  Arrangement: 
Shape  (Fig.  33)  :  Paired 

Cylindrical  Single 

Tapering  Number 

Conical 

Proportions:  C.  Kernels 

Long,  cir.— %  length  Shape — broad  view   (Fig.  36)  : 

Medium,    cir.=%    length.  Round 

Short,  cir.=to  length  Square 

Tips  (Fig.  34)  :  Keystone 

Covered  Pointed 

Exposed  Shoepeg 

Butts  ( Fig.  35 )  :  Shape — edges : 

Enlarged  Parallel 

Symmetrical  Pointed 

Contracted  Crown : 

Pointed 

B.  Rows  Smooth 
Spacing:  Dimple 

Wide  Deep  dent 

Close  Pinch  dent 


CORN  JUDGING 


97 


Depth    (Fig.  37)  : 

Shallow,  less  than  6/16" 
Medium,  6/16"  to  8/16" 
Deep,  more  than  8/16" 


Shank — size : 
Large,  equal  to  cob 
Medium 
Small,  one-half  size  of  cob 


Practice  Work. — Describe  a  few  ears.,  all  of  one  variety,  then 
ears  of  the  several  species  of  corn,  as  pop-,  flint,  etc. 

Outline  for  Describing  Corn 


Number  of  ear 

Ear: 

Shape 

Proportions 

Tips 

Butt 

Rows: 
Spacing   .                      .  . 

Arrangement  .... 

Number  

Kernels  : 
Shape,  broad  

Shape,  edge  

Crown  

Depth 

Shank: 
Size 

CORN    JUDGING 

Corn  judging  is  largely  based  on  certain  artificial  standards  of 
perfection.  Judging  consists  in  determining  how  closely  a  certain 
ear  or  set  of  ears  conforms  to  the  ideal  standard.  The  practice  is  use- 
ful in  developing  powers  of  observation  and  critical  examination. 

In  order  to  insure  that  all  characters  of  the  exhibit  are  examined 
in  a  comparative  way,  each  character  is  considered  separately  and  a 
value  given  the  character  in  accordance  with  its  importance.  The 
characters  may  be  classed  into  two  groups,  namely,  practical  points 
and  fancy  points. 

Practical  points  deal  with  those  characters  that  have  to  do  with 
the  seed  value,  as  germinating  quality. 

Fancy  points  deal  with  those  characters  that  have  to  do  with 
symmetry  and  trueness  to  type,  as  shape  of  ear  or  shape  of  kernel. 

The  score  card  is  used  by  beginners  to  insure  systematic  work, 
7 


98 


CORN  JUDGING 


but  after  a  while  the  score  card  may  be  discarded.      Experienced 
judges  seldom  use  a  score  card. 

Many  score  cards  have  been  devised.  All  cards  are  arbitrary. 
The  greatest  problem  has  been  to  determine  just  what  points  to  use 
and  what  value  to  give  each.  The  general  tendency,  however,  has 
been  to  shift  the  weight  from  fancy  characters  to  practical  characters. 
The  following  score  card  is  patterned  on  several  now  in  use. 


Fio.  34. — Tips  of  ears.     Left  to  right,  well-covered  tip,  exposed  tip  and  very  tapering  tip. 
FIG.  "35. — Butts  of  ears.    Left  to  right,  well-shaped  butt,  expanded  butt,  and  contracted  butt. 

Explanation  of  Points. — The  following  explanation  of  points 
will  serve  as  a  guide,  but  experience  is  required  for  safe  judgment. 

Cuts. — Where  a  10-ear  exhibit  is  judged  and  10  points  are  given 
to  a  character,  as  "  shape  of  ear,"  it  means  that  one  point  is  cut  for 
each  ear  off  shape.  This,  however,  is  the  extreme  cut  and  is  modified 
according  to  judgment. 

Fancy  Points. — Shape  and  Proportions. — First  examine  an 
ideal  ear  of  the  variety  to  be  judged.  In  general,  the  shape  should 


FANCY  POINTS  99 

be  cylindrical,  except  in  certain  varieties.  The  proportions  of  cir- 
cumference to  length  for  dent  corn  are  about  7  or  8  to  10,  for  flint 
corn  6  to  10.  There  are  a  few  extreme  types,  as  cob-pipe  corn,  where 
the  proportion  is  10  to  10.  For  dent  corns  use  7  or  8  to  10  as  the 
standard  where  not  otherwise  specified.  Cut  one  point  for  each  off 
ear. 

Tips  of  Ears. — Three  characters  are  considered  in  examining  the 
tip:  (1)  straight,  regular  rows;  (2)  depth  of  kernel — the  kernels 
should  be  approximately  as  deep  near  the  tip  as  in  the  middle  of  the 


FIG.  36. — Shape  of  kernels.      (1)   round;    (2)   square;    (3)   short  keystone;    (4)   deep    key- 
stone; 5  shoepeg. 

ear ;  (3)  exposure  of  cob.  A  slight  exposure  is  not  objected  to  if  the 
tip  is  good  in  other  points.  Much  exposed  cob,  however,  is  taken  to 
indicate  lack  of  adaptation.  Cut  one-half  point  per  ear. 

Butts  of  Ears. — The  butt  end  should  (1)  have  regular  rows ;  (2) 
kernels  should  he  full  depth  and  shapely;  (3)  the  shank  scar  should 
be  medium  in  size;  (4)  the  grains  should  be  well  rounded  about  the 
shank;  (5)  the  butt  should  neither  be  expanded,  due  to  enlarged 
cob,  nor  contracted,  due  to  short  grains  or  irregular  rows.  Cut  one- 
half  point  per  ear. 

Spacing  of  Rows.- — The  spacing  and  shape  of  kernels  can  be  ex- 
amined at  one  time.  For  this  purpose  remove  several  kernels  near- 


100 


CORN  JUDGING 


FIG.  37. — On  left,  shallow,  medium  and  deep  kernels.     On  right,  large  shank,  medium,  and 
too  small  (slightly  reduced). 

middle  of  ear.  The  kernels  should  be  plump  and  of  such  shape  that 
the  crowns  fit  close  together,  and  there  should  be  no  space  at  the 
tip.  Cut  one-half  point  per  ear. 


PRACTICAL  POINTS 


101 


Shape  of  Kernels. — First  examine  a  few  ears  having  good  shape 
of  kernel.  The  kernel  should  not  be  too  narrow  or  thin.  The 
kernels  should  be  of  such  shape  as  to  fit  neatly,  with  no  lost  spaces, 
and  the  tip  especially  should  be  plump.  A  keystone  suggests  the 
ideal  shape.  Cut  one  point  per  ear. 

Uniformity  in  (1)  size  of  ear;  (2)  shape  of  ear;  (3)  indenta- 
tion; (4)  kernel.  Uniformity  is  a  strong  indication  of  trueness  to 
type  (Fig.  38).  A  good  exhibit  is  assumed  to  be  uniform.  In 
judging  uniformity  the  ears  are  best  sorted  according  to  type  in 
each  case.  For  example,  ears  having  similar  identation  are  placed 


FIG.  38. — A  well-selected  exhibit  of  fancy  ears.     Note  their  uniformity  in  all  characters. 

together.  In  a  certain  case  you  may  have  six  ears  with  one  kind 
of  indentation,  three  with  another,  and  one  of  another.  Give  the 
exhibit  credit  for  six,  the  largest  number  of  a  kind. 

Proceed  in  the  same  way  with  the  other  characters.  Cut  one-half 
point  per  ear. 

Practical  Points. — Maturity. — A  lack  of  maturity  is  indicated 
in  several  ways :  ( 1 )  ear  soft,  so  it  can  be  twisted  with  the  hands ; 
(2)  kernels  discolored  at  the  tips,  due  to  poor  drying;  (3)  kernels 
blistered,  the  hull  being  raised  in  places  due  to  frost  or  freezing  while 
green;  (4)  kernels  badly  pinched  at  top,  indicating  lack  of  full  de- 
velopment. Cut  one  point  per  ear.  . 


102 


CORN  JUDGING 


Plunipness  of  Grain. — A  pointed  grain  a.t  the  tip  is  likely  to  indi- 
cate poor  germination  and  lack  of  maturity.  A  pinched  grain  at  top 
may  indicate  (1)  lack  of  adaptation;  (2)  corn  too  large  for  soil,  thus 
not  being  able  to  fully  mature;  (3)  lack  of  maturity  due  to  frost. 
Cut  one  point  per  ear. 

Color  or  Luster. — Discoloration  usually  indicates  injured  ger- 
minating quality,  or  immaturity.  Grain  with  a  bright  luster  and  no 
discolor  always  germinates  well,  and  comes  from  sound,  mature  ears 
that  have  been  well  preserved.  Discoloration  on  tip,  or  back  of 
kernel  always  means  a  wet  cob  or  soggy  ear  and  poor  curing. 

Off-colored  grains,  as  white  grains  in  yellow  corn,  mean  mixture. 
Disqualify  all  ears  showing  signs  of  mixture.  Cut  one  point  per  ear. 

Quality  of  Germ. — First  study  the  appearance  of  germs  in  ears 
that  have  been  tested  and  are  known  to  be  of  good  germinating 
quality. 

A  good  germ  should  have  a  cream  white  color,  wax-like  in  texture, 
with  only  a  small  air-space  about  the  plumule.  Poor  germs  are  most 
commonly  indicated  by  (1)  dark  color  in  some  part;  (2)  dry  or 
shrunken.  Cut  one  point  per  ear. 

Score  Card  for  Corn 


Number  of  sample  or  ear 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Fancy  points  indicating  irueness  to 
type  (55) 
1.  Shape  and  proportions  of  ear 
2.  Tips  :  

Points 

10 
5 

'••f*  ^  ^ 

3.  Butts  

5 

4.  Spacing  of  rows  

5 

5    Shape  of  kernels 

10 

6.  Uniformity  of  ear  (20)  
(a)  Size      .          

5 

(6)  Shape  

5 

•  ' 

(c)  Indentation  

5 

(d)  Kernel  

5 

Practical  points  indicating  adapta- 
tion and  viability  (45) 
7    Maturity 

10 

8.  Plumpness  of  kernel       

10 

9.  Color  of  kernel  

10 

10.  Quality  of  germ  

10 

11.  Size  of  shank 

.  5 

100 

QUESTIONS  103 

Size  of  Shank. — A  large,  heavy  shank  (1)  makes  corn  difficult  to 
husk ;  (2)  likely  to  go  with  a  large,  wet  cob  that  cures  out  slowly.  '  A 
very  small  shank  will  break  easily,  allowing  many  ears  to  fall  to  the 
ground.  The  shank  should  be  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  the 
size  of  the  cob.  Cut  one-half  point  per  ear. 

Practice  Work  in  Scoring  Corn. — In  learning  to  judge  corn 
it  is  best  to  confine  attention  at  first  to  single  characters,  until  the 
ideal  for  each  character  has  been  firmly  fixed  in  mind.  The  fol- 
lowing method  has  been  found  very  practical : 

Placing  Single  Ears. — (1)  With  a  ten-ear  exhibit  for  practice, 
pick  out  the  ear  that  is  best  in  "  shape  and  proportion."  Next  pick 
out  the  poorest,  then  arrange  the  10  ears  in  order  of  merit  when  this 
point  only  is  considered. 

(2)  Second,  take  the  next  point  on  the  score  card  and  arrange  the 
ears  according  to  tips,  and  so  on  through  all  the  points. 

(3)  Pick  the  best  ear  when  fancy  points  only  are  considered. 

(4)  Pick  the  best  ear  when  practical  points  only  are  considered. 

(5)  Pick  the  best  ear  all  points  considered. 

(6)  Repeat  with  other  10-ear  exhibits. 

Scoring  10-ear  Exhibits. — When  a  10-ear  exhibit  is  to  be  scored, 
it  is  the  general  custom  to  proceed  by  sorting  the  ears  as  each  point 
is  taken  up.  Draw  toward  you  those  ears  that  will  pass  without  a 
cut;  push  from  you  a  little  the  ears  that  are  readily  seen  to  need 
the  full  cut.  This  gives  three  classes  and  enables  one  to  quickly  form 
judgment  as  to  a  fair  cut  on  the  exhibit. 

Disqualified  Exhibits. — In  practice  it  is  the  custom  among  judges 
to  entirely  disqualify  an  exhibit  that  shows  more  than  one  ear  with 
dead  germs  or  more  than  one  ear  showing  mixture.  An  exhibitor  is 
allowed  to  remove  a  few  grains  near  the  middle  of  each  ear  for  ex- 
amination, but  the  judge  is  privileged  to  bar  corn  showing  too  many 

grains  missing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  corn  judging. 

2.  Is  it  practical  to  have  a  fixed  type  for  a  corn  variety? 

3.  Name  the  two  groups  of  characters  in  corn  judging. 

4.  Which  do  you  think  of  greatest  practical  importance? 

5.  How  would  you  determine  maturity?     Soundness? 

6.  What  are  fancy  characters? 

7.  Do  they  have  a  bearing  on  ability  to  yield  ? 

8.  Define  a  good  shape  of  ear;  butt;  tip;  kernel;  germ;  and  color. 


CHAPTER  XV 
WHEAT 

WHEAT  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  important  food  plants  of  the 
world,  though  in  actual  tons  of  production  it  is  exceeded  by  both 
potatoes  and  corn  (see  p.  3).  Europe  alone  produces  about  one- 
half  of  the  world's  wheat,  and  North  America  about  one-fourth. 

The  Production  of  Wheat. — The  wheat  crop  of  the  world  for 
the  5-year  period,  1906-1910,  is  shown  by  the  following  table,  as 
reported  in  the  1910  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture: 

Continent  Bushels 

Europe 1,800,705,600 

North    America    833,815,000 

Asia 448,136,600 

South  America   178,293,800 

Australasia    75,941,000 

Africa   67,101,600 

Total  world  crop 3,403,993,600 

The  principal  wheat-producing  countries  (Fig.  39),  together 
with  the  average  yield  per  acre  for  two  decades,  are  shown  in  the  next 
table. 

Yields  Per  Acre  in  the  Leading  Wheat-growing  Countries 

Average  yield  per  Average  yield  per  acre 

annum,  1906-1910,  1890-1899,  1900-1909, 

Country                                                     bushels  bushels  bushels 

United   States 693,316,000  13.2  14.1 

Russia 557,757,000  8.9  9.7 

France   328,848,000  18.6  20.5 

India    301,452,000  .  .  .  12.0 1 

Austria-Hungary   225,148,000  16.6  2  17.7 

Italy 169,907,000 

Argentina    154,117,000 

Germany    138,184,000  24.5  28.9 

Canada    129,926,000  . . .  18.2  8 

The  United  States  and  Eussia  are  the  leading  wheat-producing 
countries.  They  also  lead  in  oat  production  (Chapter  XX).  Ger- 
many is  also  a  great  oat-producing  country,  but  much  lower  in  total 

1  Estimated,  no  accurate  data. 

2  Austria  only. 

8  1906-19 10  only. 
104 


106 


WHEAT 


wheat  production,  due  to  the  fact  that  rye  is  so  extensively  used  in 
that  country  for  bread.  Wheat  is  usually  raised  in  great  level  plain 
regions,  where  the  climate  is  rather  dry,  and  the  average  yield  per 
acre  low.  The  yield  is  higher  in  the  humid  regions,  but  there  other 
crops  are  often  raised  more  profitably.  It  will  also  be  noted  that  the 
average  yield  of  wheat  per  acre  is  increasing,  when  the  two  last  10- 
year  periods  are  compared. 

Wheat  in  the  United  States. — The  great  wheat  belt  lies  some- 
what west  of  the  oats  region  and  corn  region,  though  they  all  overlap 


FIG.  40. — Spring  wheat  production.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

in  the  Missouri  River  Valley.  The  five  leading  wheat  states  in  order 
of  production  are  North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  South  Dakota, 
and  Nebraska.  These  five  states  produce  almost  one-half  the  wheat 
crop. 

Production  Not  Increasing. — Wheat  production  is  still  increas- 
ing in  all  the  above  states  except  Minnesota,  where  it  is  now  on  the 
decline.  Wheat  production  is  also  increasing  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
States,  but  in  all  other  sections  of  the  United  States  production  is  de- 
clining. Up  to  the  year  1899  the  wheat  acreage  steadily  increased, 
from  15,000,000  acres  in  1866  to  52,000,000  acres  in  1899,  but  has 
remained  about  stationary  since  then,  the  decline  in  older  regions 
offsetting  the  increases  in  newer  regions. 


SPRING  AND  WINTER  WHEAT 


107 


The  following  data  show  the  total  production  in  the  United 
States  and  five  leading  states  for  the  five  years  1906-1910 : 


State 


Total  yield, 
bushels 


Kansas    73,273,000 

North  Dakota   70,868,000 

Minnesota .  08,626,000 

Nebraska    45,936,000 

South  Dakota   41,215,000 


Total     299,918,000 

United  States   693,316,000 


Yield  per  acre, 
bushels 
13.4 
10.6 
13.9 
18.4 
12.8 


14.68 


The  yield  per  acre  is- not  high  in  the  wheat  belt,  but  the  acreage 
is  large. 


FIG.  41. — Winter  wheat  production.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Spring  and  Winter  Wheat. — Of  the  above  states  three  grow 
spring  wheat,  Minnesota,  North  and  South  Dakota,  while  Nebraska 
and  Kansas  grow  winter  wheat.  However,  the  division  is  not  sharp, 
as  a  small  acreage  of  winter  wheat  is  now  grown  in  the  northern 
States,  while  some  spring  wheat,  mostly  durum,  is  grown  in  both 
Kansas  and  Nebraska.  In  the  United  States  winter  wheat  produc- 
tion is  still  increasing,  though  spring  wheat  production  apparently 
reached  maximum  about  ten  years  ago. 


108  WHEAT 

Average  production  and  yield  per  acre  for  5  years,  1906-1910, 
was  as  follows : 

Production,  Average  yield  per 

bushels  acre,  bushels 

Winter  wheat   450,129,600  15.4 

Spring  wheat    243,186,800  13.5 

The  winter  and  spring  wheat  regions  are  shown  by  Figs.  40 
and  41. 

Advantages  of  Winter  Wheat. — Winter  wheat  has  several  ad- 
vantages wherever  it  can  be  grown :  (1)  It  is  more  productive;  (2) 
labor  is  better  distributed;  (3)  where  the  land  is  seeded  to  timothy, 
the  grass  can  be  sown  in  fall.  The  principal  limit  to  winter  wheat 
culture  has  been  winter  killing  (p.  128),  but  during  the  past  twenty- 
five  years  the  introduction  of  hardy  varieties  has  rapidly  extended 
the  winter  wheat  area  northward  and  westward  into  the  drier 
regions. 

Wheat  as  a  Bread  Crop. — In  the  United  States  there  is  an 
average  of  5.5  bushels  of  wheat  consumed  by  each  person,  in  England 
about  6  bushels,  in  France  about  8  bushels  of  wheat  and  1  bushel  of 
rye  per  person,  and  in  Germany  3.5  bushels  of  wheat  and  5.5  bushels 
of  rye.  More  rye  than  wheat  is  also  consumed  in  Eussia,  but  in 
Europe,  as  a  whole,  about  equal  quantities  of  wheat  and  rye  are  con- 
sumed. While  India  produces  considerable  wheat,  the  quantity  is 
small  compared  with  her  population.  In  India,  rice,  millet  seed,  and 
sorghum  seed  largely  replace  wheat  as  cereal  food.  Eice  is  also  the 
staple  cereal  food  of  the  people  of  China,  Japan,  and  the  East  Indies. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  wheat  rank  in  value?     Production? 

2.  Where  is  most  wheat  grown? 

3.  How  does  this  compare  with  corn? 

4.  Is  yield  of  wheat  per  acre  increasing  or  decreasing? 

5.  In  what  kind  of  region  is  wheat  usually  grown  ? 

6.  Where  is  the  Wheat  Belt  in  the  United  States? 

7.  Compare  with  the  Corn  Belt. 

8.  Where  is  wheat  acreage  increasing?     Where  decreasing? 

9.  Is  spring  or  winter  wheat  most  important?     Why? 

10.  How  much  wheat  used  per  person  in  United  States?   France?   Germany? 

11.  What  are  the  other  important  cereals  in  the  world? 


CHAPTER  XVI 
ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WHEAT  TYPES 

Origin. — It  is  not  possible  to  know  how  wheat  originated  as  its 
culture  dates  back  to  the  earliest  recorded  history.  Specimens  have 
been  found  in  Switzerland,  amid  the  ruins  of  the  Stone  Age.  Chinese 
history  shows.it  was  an  important  crop  2700  B.C.  and  is  one  of  the 
seeds  that  has  been  sown  in  their  annual  ceremony  of  sowing  five 
kinds  of  seeds,  from  that  day  to  this. 

Related  Wild  Forms. — It  undoubtedly  came  from  some  wild 
form  that  was  very  early  brought  under  cultivation.  There  is  a 
wild  wheat-like  grass  in  South  Europe,  the  botanical  name  of  which 
is  Egilops,  that  some  have  thought  to  be  a  wild  form.  Recently  a 
,  wheat  has  been  found  growing  wild  on  the  stony  hills  of  Palestine, 
similar  in  many  details  to  cultivated  wheat. 

Classification  of  Wheat. — Wheat  has  been  an  important  crop 
for  so  great  a  time,  and  in  every  climate,  that  an  unusual  number  of 
types  and  varieties  have  been  developed.  At  least  1000  varieties  have 
been  mentioned  and  no  doubt  there  are  many  more.  Wheats  are 
usually  classed  into  eight  species  which  may  be  grouped  into  three 
main  classes. 

I.  Bread  Wheats. — Grains  free,  ranging  in  color  from  white  to 
dark  red;  stems  hollow;  grown  mostly  in  temperate  climates  and 
regions  of  medium  rainfall.  Weir  adapted  for  making  bread  flour 
(Fig.,42). 

1.  Common  wheat  (Triticum  vulgare)  includes  most  of  our  com- 
mon hard  and  red  wheats. 

2.  Club  wheats  (T.  compactum)  generally  soft;  grown  mostly  on 
Pacific  Coast. 

Bread  wheats  are  subdivided  commercially  as  follows,  according 
to  degree  of  hardness  and  color : 
Soft  White  Wheat 
Soft  Red  Wheat 
Medium  Red  Wheat 
Hard  Winter  Wheat 
Hard  Spring  Wheat 

109 


FlQ.  42. — Bread  wheats.     Club  wheat,  common  bearded  (turkey)  and   common  beardless 

(velvet  chaff). 


HARD  AND  SOFT  WHEAT  HI 

II.  Durum  Wheat  Group. — Grains  free;    generally  hard  and 
flinty;  stems  pithy;  grown  mostly  in  dry  and  hot  regions  (Fig.  43). 
Used  in  manufacture  of  macaroni,  etc. 

3.  Poulard  wheat  (T.  turgidum)  grain  sometimes  soft;   head 
sometimes  branched,  as  in  the  miracle  variety. 

4.  Durum  wheat  (T.  durum),  very  hard. 

5.  Polish  wheat  (T.  Polonicum),  large  outer  glumes. 

III.  Spelt  Wheat  Group. — Grains  enclosed  in  glumes;    grown 
some  on  poor,  dry  soils  (Fig.  44). 

6.  Einkorn  (T.  monococcum),  one-grained  wheat;    head  com- 
pact. 

7.  Emmer   (T.  dicoccum),  two-grained  wheat;    stems  pithy; 
head  compact. 

8.  Spelt  (T.  spelta),  two-grained;  head  loose. 

Bread  Wheats. — In  the  United  States  about  95  per  cent  of  the 
crop  belongs  to  the  bread  wheats,  5  per  cent  is  durum  wheat,  and 
only  a  small  acreage  of  the  spelt  group.  The  regions  of  wheat  pro- 
duction have  already  been  outlined  (p.  106).  Bread  wheats  are 
classed  as  winter  wheats  and  spring  wheats,  also  as  bald  and  bearded, 
but  the  most  important  grouping  is  the  commercial  grouping  ac- 
cording to  color  and  hardness  of  the  grain. 

Hard  and  Soft  Wheat. — In  general,  the  hard  wheats  are  dark 
in  color  while  the  soft  wheats  are  light.  The  soft  wheats  when  cut 
in  two  show  a  white  starchy  interior,  while  hard  wheats  show  no 
white  starch,  but,  on  the  contrary,  a  dark,  glassy  texture. 

In  composition  the  soft  wheats  are  much  lower  in  gluten  and 
make  what  is  called  a  "  weak  "  flour.  In  general,  this  means  they 
do  not  make  a  large,  heavy  loaf  of  bread.  Soft  wheat  flours,  how- 
ever, are  preferred  for  certain  purposes,  as  biscuit  making  or  the 
manufacture  of  crackers,  pies,  and  confections. 

Hard  wheats  have  more  gluten  and  make  a  <e  strong "  flour. 
Hard  wheat  flour  is  especially  adapted  for  making  light  bread.  The 
strength  of  flour  is  mostly  due  to  the  gluten,  which  not  only  makes 
the  dough  elastic  but  enables  the  bread  to  absorb  more  water,  and 
therefore  moister  bread.  Absorption  of  water  also  gives  more 
pounds  of  bread.  A  hundred  pounds  of  good  strong  flour  will  make 
120  or  more  one-pound  loaves.  This  is  important  to  the  baker. 


112  ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WHEAT  TYPES 


FIG.  43. — Durum  wheat  group.      Left  to'  right,   Macaroni,   Polish  and  Poulard  wheats. 


HARD  AND  SOFT  WHEAT 


113 


FIG.  44. — Spelt  wheat  group.    Left  to  right,  emmer,  spelt,  and  einkorn. 


114 


ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WHEAT  TYPES 


Wheat  Regions. — The  color  and  hardness  of  wheat  is  related  to 
climatic  conditions,  the  drier  the  climate  the  harder  and  darker  the 
wheat,  as  a  general  rule.  The  hard  wheats  are  raised  mostly  in  the 
belt  of  states  from  Texas  to  North  Dakota  and  including  Minnesota. 
Hard  winter  wheat  is  raised  mostly  south  of  the  boundary  between 
Nebraska  and  South  Dakota,  while  hard  spring  and  macaroni  wheat 
is  raised  north  of  this  line  (Fig.  45). 

The  soft  wheats  are  raised  in  the  more  humid  regions  of  the 
eastern  and  southern  States,  while  semihard  wheat  is  raised  in  the 
great  middle  region  from  Pennsylvania  to.  the  Missouri  River. 


FIG.  45. — The  principal  wheat  regions,  according  to  type  of  wheat  grown, 


East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  we  may  say,  in  general,  the  quality 
of  wheat  is  related  to  the  humidity  or  dryness  of  climate.  West  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  however,  soft  wheat  is  produced  in  a  rather 
dry  climate,  but  here  it  is  also  due  to  the  climate  and  not  to  the  soil. 
While  climate  affects  the  quality  of  wheat,  the  soil  has  little  or  no 
affect. 

The  Durum  Wheat  Group. — While  the  term  "  hard  wheat "  is 
applied  to  several  of  the  bread  wheats,  it  can  only  properly  be  applied 
to  the  durums,  as  these  are  much  harder  than  the  bread  wheats.  The 


DROUGHT  RESISTANCE 


115 


durum  wheats  are  high  in  gluten  and  make  a  strong  flour,  but  yellow 
in  color,  and  produce  a  rather  dark  bread.  Due  to  their  high  gluten 
content  they  are  especially  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  macaroni 
and  other  pastes  requiring  an  elastic  dough  (Fig.  46). 

Drought  Resistance. — Durum  or  "  macaroni  "  wheats,  as  they 
are  commonly  called,  are  especially  adapted  to  grow  in  dry  regions. 


JOO.OOO  JC#£S 


FIG.  46. — Distribution  of  durum  wheat.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

They  are  largely  grown  in  south  Russia  in  a  region  with  only  12  to  20 
inches  annual  rainfall,  and  seldom  make  a  good  crop  where  the  rain- 
fall is  over  25  inches.  They  are  also  the  principal  wheats  of  north 
•  Africa  along  the  borders  of  the  great  Sahara  Desert,  where  it  is  very 
hot  and  dry.  They  were  generally  introduced  into  the  United 
States  about  1900  by  M.  A.  Carleton  of  the  Federal  Department  of 
Agriculture,  though  a  few  varieties  had  been  known  here  for  many 


116  ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WHEAT  TYPES 

years.  They  have  found  a  place  in  the  Great  Plains  region  from 
the  Dakotas  to  Texas. 

Durum  Wheat  Types. — The  Poulard  is  not  a  true  durum  as  the 
grain  is  sometimes  semihard  and  is  grown  in  mild  humid  climates. 
In  other  respects  it  resembles  the  durums  and  can  best  be  classed 
there.  The  "  seven-headed  "  or  "  miracle  "  wheat  is  a  type  of  this 
with  branching  head.  It  is  grown  very  little. 

Durum  wheat  or  "  macaroni "  is  the  principal  type  in  cultivation. 

Polish  wheat  has  a  very  long  grain,  sometimes  one-half  inch  in 
length.  The  head  also  appears  to  be  large,  as  the  outer  glumes  are 
very  large,  the  head  sometimes  being  eight  inches  long  and  nearly 
an  inch  thick.  It  is  not  grown  except  in  a  very  small  way. 

The  Spelt  Wheat  Group. — In  this  group  of  wheats  the  grains 
are  all  tightly  enclosed  in  the  glumes  as  with  oats.  More  or  less  of 
the  grains  are  freed  from  the  glumes  in  threshing,  but  not  as  a  gen- 
eral rule.  The  grains  are  semihard,  but  make  a  rather  poor  flour. 
They  are  sometimes  used  as  a  meal  by  poor  people  in  Europe.  Their 
culture  is  nowhere  extensive,  but  they  are  grown  in  a  limited  way 
and  mostly  on  poor  or  dry  soils  throughout  the  south  half  of  Europe. 
Their  general  introduction  into  the  United  States  dates  back  to  about 
1900.  , 

Einkorn  is  supposed  to  be  the  most  primitive  type  of  wheat,  and 
probably  one  of  the  first  in  cultivation  by  man,  not  cultivated  in 
America. 

Emmer  has  probably  the  widest  cultivation,  and  a  number  of 
varieties,  the  best  known  of  which  are  white  spring  emmer  and 
black  winter  emmer.  The  emmers  have  found  a  permanent  place  in 
the  north  half  of  the  Great  Plains,  as  a  grain  crop  for  stock  feed. 
One  variety,  the  black  winter  emmer,  introduced  by  the  TJ.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  has  been  found  to  be  especially  adapted  to 
the  high  elevated  plains  in  Wyoming,  Montana,  and  Colorado.  The 
white  spring  emmer  is  cultivated  in  a  limited  way  in  the  Dakotas  and 
in  Nebraska. 

Spelt  is  not  grown  in  America,  though  the  name  "  speltz  "  is  very 
commonly  but  wrongly  applied  to  spring  emmer.  Spelt  is  cultivated 
some  in  western  Europe,  but  not  in  Russia  (compare  Figs.  47 
and  48). 


VARIETIES  BY  SELECTION 


117 


How  Varieties  Originate. — During  the  past  one  hundred  years 
a  great  many  new  varieties  of  wheat  have  heen  produced,  in  fact, 
most  of  the  varieties  now  in  cultivation  have  been  introduced  during 
the  past  sixty  years.  There  are  two  methods  by  which  most  of  these 
have  been  originated.  The  first  is  by  selecting  a  single  plant  of 
unusual  quality  and  increasing  this  until  a  supply  of  pure  seed,  all 

Mftttt 


FIG.  47. — Types  of  wheat  grains.    Top  row,  hard  spring,  hard  winter,  red  winter.     Bottom 
row,  white  winter,  Polish  wheat,  durum. 

from  one  plant,  is  obtained.  The  second  method  is  to  artificially 
cross  one  or  more  varieties,  thus  producing  new  types,  and  to  select 
some  desirable  type  from  this  cross. 

Varieties  by  Selection. — Wheat  lends  itself  to  this  method  of 
improvement  exceptionally  well,  as  it  is  self-fertilized  (p.  25). 
When  a  plant  is  found  of  superior  type,  it  can  be  depended  upon 
to  produce  plants  true  to  type,  without  variation,  for  almost  an  in- 
definite period.^  This  is  in  marked  contrast  to  a  cross-fertilized  plant 
like  corn  or  rye,  which  usually  must  be  carefully  selected  for  several 
years  to  fix  a  type. 


118  ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WHEAT  TYPES 


M  41  I 


FIQ.  48. — Grains  of  spelt  wheat  group.  In  threshing,  the  kernels  normally  are  not  free 
from  the  chaff  as  in  upper  figures.  Lower  figures  are  the  free  kernels.  Note  that  the  kernels 
differ  from  wheat  in  being  pointed  at  both  ends.  Left  to  right,  einkorn,  emmer  and  speltz. 

FIG.  49. — An  example  of  selection.  Two  plots  of  turkey  wheat,  each  from  a  single 
plant.  One  lodged  while  the  other  stood  erect. 

Natural  Occurrence  of  New  Types. — It  may  then  be  asked 
how  these  new  types  are  to  be  found  in  wheat  if  it  does  not  vary. 
This  is  accounted  for  in  two  ways:  (1)  Occasionally  a  natural  cross 


WINTER  AND  SPRING  VARIETIES  119 

does  occur,  and  this  breaking  up  will  produce  new  combinations  of 
characters.  (2)  It  is  believed  that  occasionally  a  "  sport "  or  radi- 
cal variation  occurs,  though  we  do  not  know  the  cause.  At  any 
rate,  careful  farmers  have  occasionally  found  superior  plants  grow- 
ing in  their  fields,  and  by  increasing  these  have  secured  new  varieties 
(Fig.  49). 

Examples  of  Successful  Selection. — In  1862  Abraham  Fultz, 
a  Pennsylvania  farmer,  had  a  field  of  "  Lancaster  Red "  wheat. 
Lancaster  Red  is  a  red-grained,  bearded  wheat,  but  he  noted  a  plant 
without  beards.  This  plant  he  selected  and,  sowing  the  seed  in  his 
garden,  soon  developed  a  variety  which  is  known  as  Fultz  wheat, 
and  has  for  many  years  been  the  most  extensively  cultivated  variety 
of  red  wheat  in  the  United  States. 

In  1865  Garrett  Clawson,  a  New  York  farmer,  had  a  field  of  Fultz 
wheat,  and  found  in  this  a  few  superior  heads.  Planting  this  the 
next  year,  both  white  and  red  wheat  was  produced,  indicating  that  it 
was  probably  a  natural  cross.  He  secured  a  pint  of  the  white  wheat 
which  the  next  year  produced  39  pounds,  and  the  third  year  after  this 
254:  bushels  were  harvested.  This  wheat,  known  as  "  Clawson,"  was 
extensively  cultivated  in  New  York  for  many  years  and  was  dis- 
tributed by  the  United  States  government. 

Crossing  Wheats.— In  1886,  S.  M.  Schindel,  a  Maryland 
farmer,  produced  a  cross  of  Fultz  and  Lancaster  wheats,  which  is 
called  "  Fulcaster."  It  is  a  red  bearded  variety  similar  to  Lan- 
caster, and  probably  stands  next  to  Fultz  in  extent  of  cultivation  as 
a  semihard  wheat. 

In  other  cases  the  hybrid  wheats  were  recrossed  several  times  be- 
fore final  selections  were  made.  Two  men  who  have  given  us  many 
new  varieties  produced  by  crossing  are  C.  G.  Pringle,  of  Charlotte, 
Vermont,  and  A.  N.  Jones,  of  Newark,  New  York. 

Winter  and  Spring  Varieties. — Winter  wheats  differ  from 
spring  wheats  chiefly  in  their  ability  to  resist  colder  weather  for  longer 
periods.  True  winter  wheats  have  what  might  be  called  a  dormant 
period.  That  is,  in  order  to  accommodate  themselves  to  winter  con- 
ditions, they  grow  for  only  a  few  weeks  and  then  remain  without 
growth  during  the  winter  months,  and  resume  rapid  growth  in  the 


120  ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WHEAT  TYPES 

spring.  So  fixed  is  this  habit  that  when  sown  in  the  spring  they 
remain  for  several  months  without  "  shooting  "  or  developing  stems, 
and  if  the  weather  is  hot  will  probably  fail  to  make  stems  at  all. 

There  are,  however,  a  large  number  of  hardy  wheats  that  do  not 
have  a  true  dormant  period  that  may  be  sown  in  mild  climates  as  fall 
wheats,  but  not  in  regions  of  hard  winters.  For  example,  in  the 
Pacific  Coast  States  Little  Club  and  other  hardy  varieties  are  sown 
in  fall  or  spring,  but  the  winter  is  mild  enough  so  that  growth  is  not 
completely  suppressed  for  a  long  time.  These  wheats  can  not  be  re- 
garded as  true  winter  wheats,  since  they  develop  normally  when 
sown  in  the  spring.  In  the  same  way,  we  find  in  the  Gulf  States  that 
Burt  Oats  and  several  red  varieties  are  sown  in  the  fall  and  live 
through  the  -mild  winter,  -but  farther  north  these  varieties  are  sown 
in  the  spring. 

EXERCISES 

Study  of  Wheat  Types. — The  object  of  this  exercise  is  to  acquaint  the 
student  sufficiently  with  the  different  species  of  wheat,  so  they  will  be 
readily  recognized,  either  when  seen  in  the  head  or  as  threshed  grain. 

First  take  a  head  of  common  wheat  and  make  a  series  of  drawings, 
so  that  you  may  know  all  the  parts. 

1.  Make  two   drawings    (x2)    of  a   short  section  of  head:      (a)    from 
spikelet  side  and  ( b )  from  furrow  side. 

2.  Remove  spikelet  and  make  enlarged  drawing   (x4). 

3.  Dissect  spikelet,  laying  out  all  parts  in  relative  position  on  a  sheet 
of  paper.     Draw   (x4)   the  parts  and  label  carefully. 

4.  Draw  a  kernel  (x4),  labeling  suture,  cheek,  brush. 

5.  Lay  out  in  order,  from  left  to  right,  one  spikelet  of  each  of  the 
following  types  of  wheat:      (1)    Einkorn;      (2)    emmer;     (3)    spelt;     (4) 
macaroni;   (5)  Polish;   (6)  common  smooth;    (7)  common  bearded.    Sketch 
each  of  these  in  order  (x3). 

6.  Lay  out  kernels  of  each  and  examine.     Draw  a  cross-section  of  each 
kernel,   leaving  white    starch   blank,    but    indicating   vitreous    portions   by 
shading  with  pencil    (x4). 

State  which  of  the  types  appear  to  normally  have  only  two  kernels 
per  spikelet.  In  which  are  the  grains  enclosed  in  glume  and  in  which  are 
they  free?  Which  have  largest  kernels?  Smallest?  How  do  the  kernels 
appear  to  differ  in  color?  Texture?  Do  the  kernels  of  any  type  appear  to 
be  pointed  at  both  ends?  From  your  readings,  state  the  principal  use  of 
each  species.  Where  grown? 

Descriptive  Terms  for  Wheat. — Certain  technical  terms  are  used 
in  describing  wheat.  This  exercise  is  to  give  the  student  a  little  practice 
in  the  use  of  terms. 

Having  at  hand  a  collection  of  wheat  heads  representing  different 
varieties  and  species,  look  them  over  carefully,  study  the  list  of  descriptive 
terms,  and  describe  the  heads  by  filling  out  blanks  prepared  according  to 
form  submitted. 


QUESTIONS 


121 


Descriptive    Terms 

A.  Spike: 

1.  Bearded,  beardless,  part  bearded. 

2.  Shape: 

Uniform — straight    sides. 
Clubbed — large  at  tip. 
Tapering — tapering  toward  tip. 

3.  Cross-section: 

Square. 

Flattened  on  spikelet  sides. 

Flattened  on  furrow  sides. 

4.  Spacing   of    spikelets: 

Close,  medium,  wide. 

B.  Spikelet: 

1.  Broad,  medium,  narrow. 

2.  Number  of  kernels,  1,  2,  3,  etc. 
8»  Glumes: 

Hairy — smooth. 
4.  Color  of  chaff. 

C.  Kernels: 

1.  Color: 

Clear  red,  dull  red,  whitish,  amber. 

2.  Hardness: 

Soft,  medium,   hard,   very   hard. 

3.  Texture  in  cross-section : 

Starchy,  part  starchy,  vitreous. 

Descriptive  Form  for  Wheat 


Name  of  variety.                   .  . 

A.  Spike: 
1.  Beards   . 

2.  Shape   . 

3.  Cross-section 

4.  Spacing  of  spikelets 

B.  Spikelet: 
1    Width 

2.  Number  of  kernels  .  . 

3   Glumes 

4   Color 

C.  Kernels: 
1.  Color                

2.  Hardness  

3.  Texture  

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give   the   early   history   of   wheat. 

2.  How  many  varieties  are  there? 

3.  Name   the   important   groups   and   state    distinguishing    characters    of 

each. 

4.  Give  principal  use  of  each. 

5.  Which   is   most   important? 


122  ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  WHEAT  TYPES 

6.  Give  principal  distinction  in  a  hard  and  a  soft  wheat  in  color;  quality. 

7.  What  is  a  "  strong  "  wheat  ? 

8.  Give  the  principal  wheat  regions. 

9.  How  does  rainfall  affect  the  quality  of  wheat? 

10.  What  kind  of  flour  do  durum  wheats  make?     WThere  grown? 

11.  When  introduced  into  United  States? 

12.  Describe  the  durum  wheat  types. 

13.  What  are  the  spelt  wheats  like? 

14.  Where  are  they  cultivated?     What  used  for? 

15.  Describe  various  ways  in  which  new  varieties  of  wheat  have  originated. 

16.  Describe  some  good  examples. 

17.  Define  "  winter  wheat  "  and  "  spring  wheat." 

18.  What  difference  between  a  true  winter  wheat  and  a  wheat  that  may  be 

sown  either  fall  or  spring  ? 


CHAPTER  XYII 
WHEAT  CULTURE 

ALL  the  great  cereal  crops  are  grown  by  comparatively  simple 
cultural  methods.  On  clean,  fertile  soil,  as  the  new  prairie  soils, 
little  or  no  art  is  required  to  grow  a  crop.  It  is  then  simply  a 
question  of  securing  a  variety  adapted  to  the  region,  breaking  the 
soil,  sowing  and  covering  the  seed. 

As  a  country  becomes  older,  however,  problems  increase.  Insect 
pests  come  sooner  or  later,  plant  diseases  are  apt  to  become  more 
general,  and  the  soil  is  depleted  of  fertility.  As  the  new  problems 
develop  they  are  usually  met  in  some  degree,  and  the  final  system  of 
cropping  is  an  adjustment  to  changing  conditions.  Ordinarily  the 
best  and  most  thoughtful  farmers  of  a  community  probably  practice 
both  practical  and  successful  methods.  The  details  of  culture  can 
best  be  found  out  by  observation  of  successful  farmers,  and  some 
experimenting  with  methods  found  successful  in  other  places.  In  a 
text-book  on  culture  only  the  most  general  principles  can  be  dealt 
with. 

Soils  for  Wheat. — Wheat  has  been  in  cultivation  for  a  long  time 
and  at  least  some  variety  of  wheat  will  grow  on  every  productive  soil, 
if  it  is  properly  prepared.  There  are  at  least  two  details,  however,  in 
which  we  may  contrast  wheat  with  corn  and  oats : 

(a)  Wheat  is  more  sensitive  to  its  surroundings  and  requires  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  to  be  in  a  more  available  condition  than  does  corn 
or  oats.  That  is,  if  barnyard  manure  is  applied  or  sod  is  turned 
under,  it  must  reach  a  more  thorough  state  of  decomposition  to  pro- 
duce a  good  effect  on  the  wheat  crop,  as  compared  with  corn  or  oats. 
In  practice,  it  is  much  more  common  to  grow  corn,  oats,  or  potatoes 
on  a  clover  sod,  or  directly  after  manuring,  than  wheat.  Also  in 
practice,  as  soil  becomes  depleted  the  farmer  generally  begins  apply- 
ing commercial  fertilizer  to  wheat  before  other  cereal  crops. 

(6)  Wheat,  being  more  sensitive  to  its  soil  conditions,  requires 
a  more  thoroughly  pulverized  soil,  well  compacted,  than  is  the  case 
with  corn  or  oats.  For  example,  in  the  Central  States,  where  good 
oats  are  secured  without  plowing  the  soil  in  its  preparation,  but  only 

123 


124  WHEAT  CULTURE 

disking  up  well,  and  where  corn  land  is  plowed  but  often  not  thor- 
oughly pulverized  and  packed,  the  same  farmers  practise  much  more 
thorough  preparation  of  wheat  land. 

Soil  Types  Compared. — A  loam  soil  or  clay  soil,  not  too  com- 
pact, is  usually  said  to  be  best  for  wheat,  because  it  can  most  easily 
be  brought  into  good  tilth.  However,  good  tilth  can  be  secured  on 
any  productive  soil,  from  a  sandy  loam  to  a  heavy  clay,  by  proper 
management,  and  good  wheat  is  grown  on  all  soil  types. 

In  general,  the  heavier  the  soil  the  more  thoroughly  it  must  be 
plowed  and  pulverized;  while  in  the  sandier  soil  increasing  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  a  proper  supply  of  organic  matter. 

Early  Plowing  for  Winter  Wheat. — Winter  wheat  is  usually 
sown  six  to  eight  weeks  before  the  ground  freezes,  which  means  sow- 
ing about  the  first  half  of  September  in  the  northern  States  and 
later  as  we  go  southward. 

Experiments  have  been  made  at  the  Kansas,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  North  Dakota  Experiment  Stations,  with  early  and  late  fall  plow- 
ing. In  every  case  where  the  plowing  could  be  done  from  one  to  two 
months  before  seeding,  the  yield  was  considerably  increased  when 
compared  with  plowing  and  fitting  the  ground  just  before  seeding. 

The  Compact  Seed-bed. — One  important  reason  for  the  im- 
proved yield  from  early  plowing  is  that  the  seed-bed  will  be  not  only 
fine  but  firm.  (1)  A  loose  seed-bed  will  not  allow  proper  root  de- 
velopment, due  to  air-spaces,  and  (2)  also  it  is  apt  to  be  dry.  (3) 
The  coarse,  undecayed  stubble  and  weeds  turned  down  prevent  gooc, 
contact  with  the  subsoil,  so  moisture  does  not  readily  pass  upward. 
(4)  Long  experience  has  also  shown  that  plants  do  not  winterkill  to 
so  great  an  extent  on  a  firm  seed-bed,  probably  due  to  better  root  de- 
velopment. 

Deep  or  Shallow  Plowing. — In  the  western  States  there  was  a 
tradition  more  or  less  common  for  many  years  that  plowing  should 
not  be  deeper  than  the  planting,  so  that  the  seed  could  be  placed  on 
the  firm,  undisturbed  subsoil.  There  was  good  reason  for  this  when- 
ever the  plowing  was  done  just  before  planting,  allowing  no  oppor- 
tunity for  re-compacting  the  soil.  Experience  has  generally  shown, 
where  the  plowing  was  done  in  sufficient  time  to  allow  for  repacking 
(three  or  more  weeks) ,  that  deep  plowing  (6  inches)  was  better  than 
shallow  (3  inches). 


FERTILIZERS  FOR  WHEAT  125 

Uncertainty  of  Rules. — Cultural  rules  are  very  uncertain,  since, 
in  general,  the  crop  is  more  affected  by  the  kind  of  general  manage- 
ment the  land  has  had  during  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  than  the 
particular  kind  of  treatment  given  just  preceding  planting.  The 
general  effect  of  cropping  systems  on  yield  is  developed  in  Chapter  V, 
and  should  be  here  reviewed. 

Fertilizers  for  Wheat. — In  the  older  farming  sections  farmers 
begin  applying  commercial  fertilizer  to  wheat  before  other  cereal 
crops,  as  corn  or  oats.  This  is  apparently  because  (1)  wheat,  being 
more  sensitive  to  soil  conditions,  responds  somewhat  more  quickly; 
(2)  grass  and  clover  are  commonly  sown  with  wheat  and  the  fertilizer 
is  often  for  the  benefit  of  the  new  seeding  also.  The  principles  of 
fertilizing  for  wheat  have  already  been  fully  developed  (p.  36)  and 
will  not  be  further  considered  here. 

Since  fertilizers  are  to  be  used  to  supply  needed  mineral  elements, 
it  will  be  well  to  note  the  minerals  most  in  demand  by  the  wheat 
plant.  Following  is  the  average  analysis,  as  reported  by  I^aws  and 
Gilbert,  of  the  ash  of  wheat  grain  and  straw : 

Mineral  Constituents  of  Wheat 

Grain  Straw 

Ferric  oxide    0.645  0.69 

Lime  3.175  5.075 

Magnesia    10.48  1.525 

Potash    33.345  15.355 

Soda    0.18  0.265 

Phosphoric  anhydride   (P2OB)    50.065  3.10 

Sulf uric  anhydride  (SO3) 1.42  3.84 

Chlorine 0.05  2.13 

Silica    0.655  68.505 

Total     100.015  100.485 

Phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  by  far  the  most  important.  In 
the  grain  phosphoric  acid  leads,  while  in  the  straw  there  is  five  times 
as  much  potash.  The  large  silica  content  is  not  important,  as  the 
crop  will  do  quite  as  well  without  it  and  the  presence  of  silica  in  the 
straw  may  be  considered  more  as  a  by-product.  The  other  minerals 
in  the  list,  except  lime,  are  ordinarily  present  in  abundance.  Nitro- 
gen is  also  added  in  fertilizers,  but  for  wheat  where  a  good  rotation 
including  clover  is  practised  or  manure  is  occasionally  applied,  only 
a  little  nitrogen  is  needed  in  the  fertilizer. 

On  the  wheat  soils  of  tha  middle  States  phosphate  is  required 


126 


WHEAT  CULTURE 


most,  and  many  farmers  in  New  York  and  Ohio  use  only  acid  phos- 
phate, at  the  rate  of  from  100  to  300  pounds  per  acre.  It  is  generally 
considered  better  practice,  however,  to  use  a  complete  fertilizer, 
which  means  all  three  elements.  A  common  fertilizer  for  wheat  con- 
tains 3  per  cent  nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  and  5  per  cent 
potash;  such  a  formula  is  commonly  known  as  a  3-8-5  fertilizer 
(seep.  37). 

Minerals  Used  in  Early  Growth. — One  reason  which  helps  to 
explain  why  wheat  responds  so  well  to  fertilizer  is  that  it  requires 
elements  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  when  the  available  supply  in 
the  soil  is  limited.  As  the  summer  advances  and  the  soil  becomes 
warm,  plant-food  becomes  more  available,  but  studies  at  the  Minne- 
sota Station  show  that  the  wheat  plant  takes  up  about  85  per  cent  of 
its  food  supply  from, the  soil  by  the  time  it  is  half-grown,  while  dur- 
ing the  latter  half  of  its  growth  wheat  is  building  up  its  starch  and 
cellulose  material  which  is  taken  largely  from,  the  air.  The  follow- 
ing data  on  the  wheat  plant  are  reported  in  Minnesota  Bulletin  29 : 

Composition  of  Wheat  at  Different  Dates 


Dry 

organic 

Mineral 
matter 

Per  cent  of 

Date                  Condition 

per  cent 
of  total 

per  cent 
of  total 

N 

P 

K 

May  10 

June  30.        18"  high  .... 
July  15          Headed  

44 

57 

74 
85 

86 
85 

80 

85 

75 
89 

August  1.      Milk  

90 

100 

98 

100 

95 

August  20.    Ripe  

100 

99 

100 

94 

100 

Time  of  Sowing  Winter  Wheat. — It  is  generally  agreed  that 
the  sowing  should  be  early  enough  to  give  a  good  root  growth  before 
the  soil  freezes.  This  means  six  to  eight  weeks  before  freezing.  If 
sown  too  early,  however,  the  stems  are  apt  to  grow  too  large  and  to  be 
killed  back  to  the  crown  by  freezing.  This  causes  a  second  set  of 
tillers  to  come  out  in  the  spring  and  these  are  never  as  strong  as  the 
first  stems.  Also,  when  the  Hessian  fly  is  present,  sowing  must  be  a 
little  late  to  avoid  the  fly  (p.  139). 

Time  of  Sowing  Spring  Wheat. — The  very  earliest  sowing  pos- 
sible is  considered  best  for  spring  wheat.  (1)  The  long  period  of 


BROADCAST  SOWING  VS.  DRILLING 


127 


slow  growth  while  the  weather  is  cool  gives  a  better  root  develop- 
ment, while  if  planted  later  it  will  shoot  up  quickly  when  warm 
weather  comes.  (2)  Early  sowing  results  in  earlier  ripening,  which 
favors  the  avoidance  of  summer  rust,  and  hot,  dry  summer  weather. 
Rate  of  Sowing  Wheat. — At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station 
wheat  has  been  sown  at  rates  varying  from  three  to  ten  pecks  per 
acre.  In  all,  eight  varieties  have  been  grown.  Following  is  a  sum- 
mary of  several  years'  test  with  all  varieties  (Ohio  Bui.  231)  : 

Effect  of  Rate  of  Seeding 


Pecks  of  seed  per  acre 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Average  yield  per  acre  .           ... 

?36 

?50 

?56 

?66 

?68 

277 

279 

275 

Net  yield  when  seed  is  subtracted. 
Average  weight  per  bushel  

22.9 
58.6 

24.0 

58.8 

24.4 

58.7 

25.1 

58.9 

25.1 
59.0 

25.7 
58.9 

25.7 
59.0 

25.0 
59.0 

These  data  show  only  a  small  increase  in  yield  due  to  heavy  seed- 
ing. When  wheat  tillers  well  and  no  severe  loss  from  winter-killing 
occurs,  4  pecks  will  give  a  full  stand,  but  long  experience  has  shown 
that  it  is  safer  under  average  conditions  to  sow  rather  thickly.  On 
heavy  clay  soils  where  wheat  does  not  tiller  freely,  more  seed  is  re- 
quired than  on  warmer  or  lighter  soils.  Eight  pecks  is  recommended 
for  Ohio  while  farther  west,  along  the  Missouri  valley,  five  to  six 
pecks  are  usually  sown.  Farther  west  in  the  dry  farming  section 
(western  Nebraska)  three  to  four  pecks  is  the  usual  recommenda- 
tion. Here  wheat  not  only  tillers  freely,  due  to  the  warm  loose  soil, 
but  with  the  low  rainfall,  thin  sowing  with  larger  plants  will  endure 
drought  better. 

Broadcast  Sowing  vs.  Drilling. — Three  reasons  are  usually  ad- 
vanced in  favor  of  drilling  (Fig.  50)  :  (1)  Better  germination.  When 
grain  is  sown  broadcast  only  a  part  is  covered  at  the  proper  depth  to 
come  up  at  once.  This  results  in  uneven  growth  and  some  plants  are 
too  late  to  make  their  best  yield.  (2)  Withstands  winter-killing 
better.  The  crowns  are  better  protected,  and  when  the  ground 
heaves  through  freezing,  the  mass  of  plants  in  a  drill-row  are  not  so 
easily  thrown  out  of  the  soil.  (3)  When  grass  or  clover  is  sown 
with  the  wheat  it  will  do  better,  as  it  can  grow  between  the  drill-rows 
and  gets  more  light. 


128 


WHEAT  CULTURE 


Winter-killing. — Winter-killing  is  a  source  of  large  loss  to  the 
wheat  growers.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  re- 
ports every  year  the  acreage  abandoned  due  to  winter-killing.  The 
percentage  abandoned  for  11  years  is  shown  as  follows : 


Year 
1901 

Percentage 
6.7 

Year 
1907    

Percentage 
11.2 

1902 

.  .  .    15.2 

1908    

...      4.2 

1903 

2.8 

1909    

7.2 

1904    . 

.    .  .    15.4 

1910   

13.3 

1905 

.  .      4.6 

1911    

9.0 

1906    . 

6.5 

Average 


10.5 


PIG.  50. — Drilling  wheat  with  a  double-disk  drill. 

Winter-killing  is  due  to  several  causes :  ( 1 )  Heaving  out  by  freez- 
ing of  soil.  All  heavy  soils  in  humid  regions  heave,  due  to  alternate 
freezing  and  thawing.  This  breaks  the  wheat  roots  and  throws  the 
plants  out  on  the  surface.  (2)  Winter  drying.  In  the  Great  Plains 
region  the  soil  is  often  dry  all  winter  with  no  snow  covering.  Large 
cracks  develop  and  the  plants  are  slowly  dried  out,  especially,  on 
loose  or  poorly  prepared  soil.  (3)  Late  sowing  on  poor  soil,  when 
the  plants  are  so  weak  they  kill  by  direct  freezing. 

Seed  Wheat. — While  every  grower  should  always  be  on  the 
lookout  for  new  or  improved  varieties,  he  should,  in  the  main,  grow 
the  variety  that  long  experience  has  shown  to  be  best  for  his  region, 
and  try  the  new  varieties  only  experimentally. 


CULTIVATION  OF  WHEAT  129 

As  wheat  is  a  self-fertilized  plant  and  therefore  is  not  easily 
influenced  or  changed,  we  can  not  expect  a  stock  of  wheat  to  ma- 
terially improve  or  degenerate  from  year  to  year.  This  would  be 
especially  true  if  the  wheat  were  all  of  one  fairly  pure  type.  How- 
ever, if  the  wheat  is  a  mixture  of  types,  then  we  should  expect  those 
types  best  adapted  to  produce  the  heaviest  and  best  grains.  If  the 
difference  in  weight  is  sufficient,  a  rough  separation  can  be  made 
with  a  fanning  mill ;  but  if  the  difference  in  weight  is  not  great,  we 
have  no  machine  sufficiently  sensitive  to  make  a  separation. 

Size  of  grain  where  all  are  well  developed  is  not  important,  as 
large  and  small  grains  come  from  the  same  head  and  carry  similar 
hereditary  characters. 

We  may,  therefore,  conclude  that  if  the  seed  wheat  is  sound  and 
of  good  weight,  there  is  probably  no  good  reason  to  expect  further  im- 
provement by  fanning  or  grading;  but  if  there  is  a  noticeable  por- 
tion of  light  seed,  it  would  be  desirable  to  grade.  Impurities,  as 
noxious  weed  seeds,  should  always  be  removed. 

Changing  Seed. — It  is  a  more  or  less  common  belief  that  a 
variety  will  run  out  if  grown  for  a  long  time  in  one  place.  Eather 
extensive  trials  were  made  by  the  North  Dakota  and  Minnesota 
stations.  Seed  of  the  same  varieties  was  exchanged  between  these 
States,  in  all  23  trials,  with  the  result  that  in  no  case  was  the  change 
an  advantage  and  the  average  showed  a  decrease  of  2.5  bushels  per 
acre,  when  the  seed  from  the  other  station  was  compared  with 
home-grown. 

Home-grown  Seed  at  Ontario. — At  the  Guelph  Station,  On- 
tario, Canada,  certain  varieties  of  cereals  have  been  continuously 
grown  for  many  years,  and  in  all  cases  there  has  been  no  apparent 
decrease  in  yield,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  all  the  varieties  appear  to 
yield  better  now  than  before. 

Cultivation  of  Wheat. — In  Europe  in  certain  regions  where 
labor  is  cheap  and  farming  intensive,  small  grain  is  cultivated  by 
hoeing  between  the  drill-rows.  In  ordinary  practice,  however,  no 
culture  is  given  after  the  grain  is  sown. 

Going  over  the  fields  with  a  peg-tooth  harrow  or  weeder  is  prac- 
tised in  some  parts  of  the  wheat  belt,  and  is  considered  good  practice 
in  dry  years.  To  use  the  harrow  the  plants  should  be  drilled,  and 
9 


130  WHEAT  CULTURE 

then  the  drilKrows  followed,,  not  crossed.  The  plants  should  be 
well  rooted  before  using  the  harrow,  but  not  too  large.  It  is  not 
practical  to  harrow  broadcast  grain. 

Boiling  in  the  spring  is  very  often  good  practice.  Rolling  settles 
the  soil  about  the  roots  and  fills  up  the  cracks.  At  the  Nebraska 
Station  rolling  increased  the  yield  about  5  bushels  per  acre  during 
a  period  of  several  years  (Nebr.  Bui.  104).  In  the  eastern  States 
when  grass  and  clover  seed  is  sown  in  the  wheat,  rolling  is  considered 
beneficial  to  the  new  seeding.  Corrugated  rather  than  smooth  rollers 
are  generally  considered  best. 

Pasturing  Wheat. — In  the  southern  part  of  the  wheat  region, 
from  Kentucky  to  Oklahoma,  considerable  fall  and  winter  pasture 
can  be  secured  from  the  wheat  fields.  Properly  managed  the  crop 
will  not  be  much  injured.  Under  certain  conditions  it  is  said  to  be 
beneficial,  as  a  very  open  fall  when  the  wheat  makes  a  heavy  top 
growth  and  is  in  danger  of  winter  injury.  Also  when  the  soil  is 
very  loose,  tramping  by  cattle  may  be  beneficial.  However,  as  gen- 
erally practised  it  is  to  be  condemned,  as  the  wheat  is  frequently 
eaten  down  very  close  and  cattle  are  allowed  on  when  the  land  is 
wet. 

Summer  Fallow  for  Wheat. — Summer  fallow  usually  means  to 
plow  and  cultivate  a  piece  of  land  for  an  entire  summer  without  a 
crop.  The  method  has  been  practised  in  a  limited  way  in  all  climates 
and  soils  on  poor  land,  but  is  only  found  as  a  regular  practice  in 
somewhat  dry  regions.  This  method  gives  a  crop  only  once  in  two 
years,  hence  the  yield  must  be  more  than  twice  as  great  to  be  more 
profitable.  In  general,  experiments  have  failed  to  show  an  average 
double  yield  for  summer  fallow,  except  in  the  very  driest  regions. 
Further,  almost  as  good  results  are  secured  in  the  wheat  crop  if  a 
cultivated  crop,  like  corn,  is  raised  in  the  year  when  fallow  would 
ordinarily  be  practised.  However,  in  some  regions  where  very  ex- 
tensive farming  is  practised  with  big  machinery,  the  land  will  get 
very  foul  with  weeds,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  advised  that  summer 
fallowing  once  in  four  years  is  the  most  practical  way  of  clearing  the 
land  of  weeds  and  of  putting  it  again  in  good  physical  condition. 

The  Listing  Method. — This  method  is  also  practised  in  dry 
regions  under  extensive  farming  methods.  The  method  consists  in 


QUESTIONS  131 

breaking  the  land  immediately  after  wheat  harvest  with  a  lister,  or 
double  mould-board  plow,  in  furrows  three  to  four  feet  apart.  When 
weeds  have  started,  the  soil  is  worked  into  the  furrows  with  a  corn 
cultivator,  or  only  harrowed.  The  land  may  be  leveled  with  one 
cultivation  and  harrowing,  but  it  is  better  to  level  in  two  cultivations, 
and  one,  two,  or  more  harrowings  with  the  disk  harrow  and  peg- 
tooth  harrow.  Advantages  claimed  for  this  method  are :  (1)  That 
the  land  can  be  quickly  and  cheaply  broken  after  harvest,  thus  con- 
serving moisture.  (2)  That  rainfall  is  more  effectively  taken  up 
and  conserved.  The  rain,  collecting  in  the  furrows,  reaches  the  sub- 
soil at  once,  and  if  loose  soil  is  filled  in  soon  after,  the  water  is  well 
protected  by  the  loose  mulch.  (3)  The  method  is  low  in  cost  as 
compared  with  other  methods  that  fit  the  soil  as  well  and  conserve  the 
moisture. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  good  way  to  find  out  practical  methods  of  wheat  culture? 

2.  Compare  wheat  and* corn  as  to  manurial  requirements;   preparation  of 

the   soil. 

3.  Explain  importance  of  early  plowing  for  fall  wheat;  of  a  compact  seed- 

bed. 

4.  Compare  deep  and  shallow  plowing. 

5.  Why   are   cultural    rules  uncertain  ? 

6.  Give  apparent  reasons  for  fertilizing  wheat  before  other  farm   crops. 

7.  What  are  the  most  important  mineral  elements  in  the  grain  of  wheat? 

Straw  ? 

8.  Is  silica  important? 

9.  Which  element  is  most  important  in  wheat  fertilizers? 

10.  Explain  the  assimilation  of  minerals  and  carbon  in  different  periods 

of   growth. 

11.  Give  principles  governing  time  of  growing  winter  wheat.     Spring  wheat. 

12.  Explain  relation  of  rate  of  sowing  to  tillering;   yield. 

13.  What  is  the  usual  rate  of  sowing  in  your  neighborhood? 

14.  State  the  advantages  of  drilling  over  broadcasting. 

15.  To  what  is  winter-killing  due? 

16.  How  serious  is  it  in  winter  wheat  culture? 

17.  Why  is  wheat  fairly  constant  in  character? 

18.  When  may  we  expect  fanning  seed  wheat  to  be  good  practice? 

19.  Is   changing  seed  good   practice? 

20.  Compare  harrowing  and  rolling  as  treatments  for  growing  wheat. 

21.  Is  pasturing  fall  wheat  practical? 

22.  Compare    the    advantages    and    disadvantages    of    summer    fallow    for 

wheat. 

23.  Describe  the  listing  method. 

24.  Where  is  it  practised? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

HARVESTING,    MARKETING,    AND    UTILIZING 

WHEAT 

Harvesting. — While  some  have  advocated  cutting  wheat  green, 
it  is  now  generally  agreed  that  wheat  should  be  well  ripened  to  secure 
maximum  yield.  As  the  roots  and  lower  part  of  the  stems  appear  to 
die  first,  there  probably  is  no  loss  if  cut  when  the  upper  stems  are 
slightly  green.  Disadvantages  of  overripeness  in  humid  climates  are : 
(1)  wheat  shatters  more;  (2)  in  the  hard  wheats,  overripe  wheat 
will  have  more  "  yellow  "  berries,  which  injures  the  milling  value. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  wheat  is  allowed  to  stand  several  weeks  after 
ripe.  This  is  possible  because  there  is  no  rain  during  this  season. 
Varieties  are  used  that  experience  has  shown  will  stand  up  for  so  long 
a  time  and  that  are  also  non-shattering.  This  makes  possible  the 
use  of  the  combined  harvester  and  thresher,  the  whole  operation  being 
completed  in  the  field. 

Shocking. — Where  grain  is  to  be  hauled  to  the  barn,  as  is  the 
universal  custom  in  the  Eastern  States,  or  stacked  at  once  it  is 
desirable  to  have  rather  small  and  loose- shocks,  so  the  grain  will  cure 
out  rapidly.  In  such  cases  it  is  even  doubtful  whether  the  shock 
should  be  covered  with  a  cap,  unless  the  harvest  season  is  rainy. 

When  the  grain  is  to  be  threshed  from  the  shock  and  may  remain 
in  the  field  for  two  or  more  weeks,  considerable  skill  is  required  to 
make  good  shocks  that  will  not  blow  over  and  will  also  shed  rain.  In 
this  case  the  shocks  should  be  rather  large,  12  to  16  bundles,  and  two 
cap  sheaves.  Round  shocks  with  the  heads  well  drawn  in  will  be 
better  than  long  shocks.  Generally,  grain  shocks  are  very  poorly 
put  up,  but  a  good,  large,  well-made  shock  will  stand  for  several  weeks 
and  suffer  little  damage  to  the  grain. 

Threshing  from  Shock  or  Stack. — If  the  weather  is  dry  and 
the  grain  can  be  threshed  at  once  from  the  shock  without  exposure  to 
rain,  the  grain  will  be  secured  in  good  condition.  Exposure  to  rain, 
however,  will  ordinarily  cause  loss  in  both  quality  and  yield,  In 
Minnesota  data  have  been  colleQtecl  showing  that  it  costs  about  one 
132 


MARKET  GRADES 


133 


cent  per  bushel  more  to  stack  and  thresh,  as  compared  with  shock 
threshing.  The  extra  expense  was  considered  as  .cheap  insurance 
against  greater  loss,  in  case  a  machine  was  not  available  for  threshing 
as  soon  as  the  grain  was  ready. 

Cost  of  Producing  Wheat. — The  cost  will  vary  on  every  farm, 
due  to  a  large  number  of  factors.  The  following  table  on  cost  of 
production  in  the  United  States  will  give  a  general  idea.  The  first 
three  columns  of  figures  are  taken  from  the  Crop  Eeporter  for  May, 
1911,  and  the  last  two  are  calculated  from  the  Census  data.  The 
figures  all  apply  to  the  crop  of  1909. 

Cost  of  Raising  Wheat 


Section 

Acre 
value 

Acre 
cost 

Value 
less  cost 

Yield 
per  acre 

Cost  per 
bushel 

North  Atlantic  
South  Atlantic  
South  Central  

Dollars 

21.18 
16.83 
14.05 

Dollars 

17.05 
13.10 
10.35 

Dollars 

4.13 
3.73 
3.70 

Bushels 

17.9 
11.8 
11  3 

Cents 

95 
111 
91 

East  North  Central  

18.31 

13.41 

490 

166 

81 

West  North  Central  

14.96 

9.74 

5.42 

152 

64 

Far  Western 

22  01 

1269 

9  32 

229 

55 

United  States 

16  48 

11  15 

5  33 

15  8 

75 

Shrinkage  in  Storage. — Wheat  grain  is  usually  much  drier  than 
corn  when  stored.  While  corn  may  be  expected  to  shrink  5  to  20 
per  cent  during  the  first  year  in  storage  (p.  85),  wheat  is  expected 
to  shrink  not  more  than  2  to  3  per  cent. 

Market  Grades. — A  large  portion  of  the  wheat  crop  is  sold 
directly  to  the  local  miller  or  dealer  and  is  then  bought  on  inspection 
of  the  grain.  Where  grain  is  shipped  to  the  great  terminal  markets, 
as  Chicago,  Minneapolis,  or  St.  Louis,  it  is  graded  by  official  in- 
spectors, who  are  usually  employees  of  the  State.  The  grain  is 
bought  and  sold  according  to  these  grades. 

The  grades  recognized  by  the  Grain  Dealers'  National  Association 
are  as  follows : 

White  Winter  Wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Red  W7inter  Wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Hard  Winter  Wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Northern  Spring  Wheat,  No.  1 ;  Hard  Spring,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Spring  Wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 


134    HARVESTING,  MARKETING,  AND  UTILIZING  WHEAT 

Durum  Wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Pacific  Coast  Eed  Wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Pacific  Coast  White  Wheat,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

There  is  also  a  grade  in  each  case  known  as  "  rejected/'  which 
means  the  wheat  was  too  poor,  too  wet,  or  for  any  other  reason  not  fit 
to  grade. 

In  general,  a  No.  1  wheat  should  weigh  60  pounds  or  more,  a  No. 
2  wheat  58  pounds,  a  No.  3,  56  pounds,  and  a  No.  4,  50  pounds  or 
more. 

EXERCISES 

To  Determine  Weight  per  Bushel. — In  measuring  grain  the  meas- 
ure is  filled  level  full  and  stroked  with  a  straight  edge,  instead  of  heap- 
ing the  measure  as  with  apples  or  potatoes. 

In  practice  the  weight  is  usually  determined  by  the  use  of  a  one- 
quart  or  two-quart  brass  kettle,  hung  on  a  weight  beam. 

In  filling  the  kettle  it  is  the  custom  to  pour  the  grain  in  loose  as  pos- 
sible, then,  without  shaking,  stroke  with  straight  edge. 

Try  different  methods  of  filling  to  note  effect  on  results,  as  dipping 
the  kettle,  filling  loose,  and  shaking,  or  pouring  in  grain  at  different 
heights. 

WHEAT    JUDGING 

By  referring  to  the  text  it  will  be  noted  that  the  common  wheats  may 
be  grouped  into  five  classes,  according  to  color  and  degree  of  hardness. 
This  should  be  thoroughly  reviewed  before  taking  up  the  exercise. 

Materials. — Threshed  lots  of  wheats  representing  hard  winter,  hard 
spring,  red  wheat,  white  wheat,  and  durum  wheat;  also  a  set  representing 
official  grades  and  miscellaneous  samples  collected  from  local  sources. 

Sampling — First  mix  grain  thoroughly  and  dip  out  about  a  teaspoon- 
ful.  Some  prefer  to  use  an  even  100  grains  in  a  sample,  as  it  avoids 
figuring  percentages,  but  this  is  not  important  as  percentage  is  easily  cal- 
culated. Also  a  chance  sample  is  likely  to  be  more  fair  than  a  counted 
sample. 

Method  of  Analysis. — Weight  per  Bushel. — This  should  be  determined 
if  apparatus  is  available  for  doing  so. 

Purity  and  Soundness. — Foreign  matter  and  broken  or  injured  seeds 
may  be  classed  together,  as  they  must  all  be  removed  to  find  net  weight 
of  good  grain. 

Injured  grains  are  of  four  classes: 

1.  Bin  burnt  and  stack  burnt  means  wheat  overheated  in  bin  or  stack, 
causing  the  oil  to  exude  and  giving  a  dark  appearance  to  the  germ  end. 

2.  Sprouted  grain.     Generally   shows   dried   sprout. 

3.  Broken  grain. 

4.  Shriveled  grain,  due  to  arrested  development  in  growth,  from  such 
causes  as  disease,  insects,  or  unfavorable  weather. 

(Having  discarded  impurities  and  unsound  grain,  use  sound  sample  for 
rest  of  exercise.) 

Texture  and  Hardness. — In  general  the  wheats  from  the  drier  regions 
are  classed  as  "  hard  "  wheats,  while  those  from  humid  regions  are  classed 
as  "  soft "  wheats.  There  is  a  large  intermediate  class,  known  on  the 


EXERCISES 


135 


market  as  "  red "  wheats.  In  general  the  harder  wheats  are  darker  in 
color  (the  durum  wheats  an  exception)  and  higher  in  protein  content. 
The  hard  wheats  make  a  "  strong  "  flour  adapted  to  light  bread  making, 
while  the  soft  wheats  produce  a  "  short "  and  "  weak  "  flour  adapted  to 
biscuits  or  cracker  making. 

Color  of  Kernels. — As  already  explained,  color  is  related  to  hardness. 
The  "  amber  "  and  "  clear  red  "  wheats  are  those  with  a  glassy,  translucent 
appearance  when  broken,  and  hard  texture.  Most  hard  wheats  are  clear  red 
in  color,  but  the  durum  wheats  are  an  exception,  being  "  light  amber." 
The  "  dull  red  "  wheats,  known  as  "  red  "  on  the  market,  are  medium  hard, 
but  white  and  starchy  when  broken.  The  "  white  "  wheats  are  softer  and 
pure  white  inside  when  broken. 

Size  of  Kernels. — This  is  arbitrary  but  is  determined  by  comparison 
with  various  samples  of  wheat  of  types  representing  the  various  sized 
kernels. 

Report    on   Wheat   Samples 

(Express  data  in  per  cent) 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

^Veioht  ver  bushel 

Purity  and  soundness: 
Foreign  matter 

Broken  grains 

Shriveled  grains 

Otherwise  damaged 

Texture  and  hardness: 
Hard  and  vitreous         

Medium  

Soft  and  starchy  

Color  of  kernels: 
Light  amber 

Clear  red 

Dull  red 

Whitish 

Size  of  kernels: 
Large  

Medium  

Small  

Weight  of  100  grains 

Score   Card  for   Wheat 


i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Weight  per  bushel  30 

Purity  and  soundness  30 

Uniformity  in: 
Color  10 

Texture  25 

Size  of  kernel  5 

136     HARVESTING,  MARKETING,  AND  UTILIZING  WHEAT 

EXPLANATION     OF     CUTS 

1.  Weight   per  Bushel. — 30.     Good   wheat   should   weigh   60   Ibs.   per 
bushel.     Cut  2  points  for  each  pound  below  this. 

2.  Purity   and   Soundness. — 30.     Cut   two   points   for    each    per   cent 
foreign  matter  or  broken  and  unsound  kernel. 

3.  Uniformity  in  Color. — 10.     Let  the  bulk  of  the  sample  determine 
the  color.    Cut  2  points  for  each  per  cent  of  other  colors. 

4.  Uniformity  of  Texture. — 25.     Cut  two  points  for  each  per  cent  of 
texture  not  uniform  with  bulk  of  sample. 

5.  Uniformity  in  Size. — 5.     Cut  1   point  for  each  per  cent  of  small 
sized  grains. 

Written  Report  on  Wheat  Judging. — Make  a  written  report  of  about 
two  or  three  pages,  answering  these  questions.  For  reference  see  lecture 
notes  and  reference  books. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "  texture"  as  applied  to  wheat  kernels?  * 

2.  How  is  it  related  to  color — to  composition? 

3.  How  is  texture  affected  by  climate  and  soil? 

4.  Why  does  the  miller  prefer  plump  kernels  for  milling? 

5.  Why   does   the  miller  object   to   cracked,   bin  burnt,   and   sprouted 
kernels  ? 

6.  What  is  the  difference  in  color  and  quality  of  flour  from  hard  and  soft 
wheats  ? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  proper  time  to  cut  wheat  in  humid  regions? 

2.  Give  the  different  practices  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

3.  What  are  the  different  practices  in  shocking  grain? 

4.  Compare  threshing  from  shock  or  curing  in  stack. 

5.  How  does  cost  of  production  vary  in  the  United  State?-? 

6.  Compare  shrinkage  of  corn  and  wheat  in  storage. 

7.  What  are  the  principal  market  classes? 


CHAPTER  XIX 
DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

THE  three  wheat  diseases  causing  most  damage  are,  in  probable 
order  of  importance,  rust,  smut,  and  scab. 

Rust. — Rust  is  found  in  all  wheat  regions,  but  is  most  injurious 
in  the  humid  regions.  In  dry  seasons  the  damage  is  usually  not 
great,  but  occasionally  in  a  wet  season  will  cause  almost  complete  loss 
of  crop  over  large  areas.  While  all  rust  has  similar  appearance  on 
the  plant,  there  are  really  two  kinds— the  leaf  rust  or  "  red  rust "  and 
the  stem  rust.  Stem  rust  is  most  destructive.  It  may  live  over 
winter  on  old  stubble,  or  straw,  and  probably  on  young  winter  wheat 
plants.  The  growing  wheat  may  be  affected  at  any  time,  but  usually 
weather  conditions  are  most  favorable  about  two  or  three  weeks  before 
the  wheat  is  ripe.  There  are  no  known  remedies  for  rust  except  to 
choose  rust-resistant  varieties,  as  varieties  vary  in  this  respect. 

Smut. — There  are  two  kinds  of  wheat  smut.  The  most  de- 
structive is  known  as  bunt,  or  stinking  smut,  and  the  other  as  loose 
smut.  They  differ  in  these  respects :  ( 1 )  The  bunt  destroys  only  the 
kernel,  leaving  the  glumes  intact,  while  loose ^mut  destroys  both 
grain  and  glumes,  leaving  only  a  bare  rachis.  (2)  When  mature 
the  spores  of  the  bunt  usually  remain  intact  in  the  grain,  making 
the  characteristic  "  smut  balls  "  found  in  the  threshed  grain.  The 
loose  smut  breaks  up  and  the  spores  are  scattered  while  the  grain  is 
standing. 

Infection. — It  is  important  to  note  the  difference  in  infection  of 
the  two  smuts  and  the  resulting  different  method  of  treatment  neces- 
sary. (1)  The  bunt  smut  balls  are  broken  up  more  or  less  during 
harvesting  and  threshing  and  the  loose  spores  find  lodgement  on  the 
outside  of  grains  and  remain  on  the  outside,  especially  among  the 
hairs  at  the  upper  end  or  in  the  crease.  (2)  The  loose  smut  matures 
at  about  the  time  the  grain  is  in  blossom.  The  spores  are  at  once 
spread,  and,  lodging  on  young  seeds  just  forming,  germinate  and 
penetrate  to  the  inside  of  the  seed,  where  the  smut  remains  dormant 
until  germination. 

137 


138  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

In  both  cases  the  smut  begins  to  grow  when  germination  of  the 
wheat  begins  and  at  once  infects  the  plant,  living  inside  the  tissues. 
The  infected  plants  are  not  noticed  until  heading  time  when  the 
heads  turn  into  smut.  The  infected  plants  are  usually  shorter  and 
not  so  noticeable,  so  that  the  damage  by  smut  from  a  casual  observa- 
tion is  usually  underestimated. 

Treatment  of  Seed. — Since  the  disease  is  carried  over  from  year 
to  year  on  the  seed,  treatment  consists  in  using  some  disinfectant  that 
will  destroy  the  smut  but  not  injure  the  wheat  germ. 

(1)  Bunt  spores  are  on  the  outside  of  the  grain  and  are  easily 
killed  by  treating  the  seed  with  a  solution  of  formalin.  Use  one  pint 
or  pound  of  40  per  cent  formalin  solution  in  40  to  45  gallons  of 
water.  The  wheat  may  be  put  in  loose  sacks  and  placed  in  the 
solution  to  soak  for  5  minutes.  A  simpler  way  is  to  pile  the  wheat  on 
a  floor  or  in  a  wagon  box,  and  apply  the  solution  with  a  sprinkling 
can,  shoveling  the  grains  over  until  all  are  thoroughly  wet.  While 
the  spores  should  be  killed  "by  contact  with  the  solution,  the  treatment 
is  considered  much  more  effective  if  the  grain  is  piled  up  and  covered 
with  wet  blankets  or 'sacks  for  12  to  24  hours.  The  formaldehyde 
gas  will  then  have  time  to  penetrate  all  crevices  of  the  grain  and 
to  destroy  the  spores. 

Loose  smut,  having  infected  the  seed  in  the  field  while  very 
young,  is  found  inside  the  seed  in  the  form  of  a  small  filament.  No 
treatment  for  the  outside  of  the  grain  will  kill  it.  The  only  effective 
method  is  known  as  the  hot-water  treatment,  which  rests  on  the 
principle  that  the  smut  filament  is  killed  by  a  temperature  of  130°  F. 
while  the  wheat  germ  will  stand  four  to  five  degrees  higher  tempera- 
ture. First  soak  the  seed  for  four  to  six  hours  in  cold  water.  Have 
ready  two  tubs  of  water  heated  to  133°  F.  and  place  the  grain  in  a 
loose  sack  in  the  first  tub,  to  bring  up  the  temperature.  Then  place 
in  the  second  tub,  keeping  the  temperature  not  lower  than  129°  F. 
or  higher  than  133°  F.  Five  minutes  at  133°  or  10  minutes  at  129° 
will  kill  the  smut.  Germination  of  the  seed  is  also  likely  to  be  injured 
and  more  should  be  sown.  As  the  treatment  is  slow  it  is  best  to  treat 
only  enough  for  a  seed  plat.  With  clean  seed  and  care,  another 
treatment  may  not  be  necessary  for  several  years.  The  smut  is  often 
spread  by  itinerant  threshing  machines. 


HESSIAN  FLY  139 

Scab. — Wheat  scab  is  a  mold  (Fusarium)  that  affects  the  wheat 
head.  Only  a  part  or  all  of  the  head  may  be  affected.  It  will  be  rec- 
ognized by  the  reddish  spot  at  the  base  of  the  affected  glumes.  There 
is  no  known  remedy,  but  it  is  best  to  get  clean  seed  and  not  use  seed 
from  an  infected  field. 

Insect  Enemies. — All  wheat  insect  enemies  are  quite  irregular 
in  their  attacks.  This  seems  to  be  due,  in  turn,  to  the  enemies  of  the 
insects  that  keep  them  more  or  less  controlled.  The  "  green  bug,"  a 
plant  louse,  is  a  good  example.  This  insect  is  to  be  found  on 
wheat  every  year,  but  is  seldom  injurious,  as  its  natural  insect  enemies 
are  usually  so  plentiful  that  it  is  kept  in  subjection.  Occasionally, 
however,  the  enemies  are  outdistanced  and  the  green  bug  increases  at 
an  enormous  rate,  often  doing  great  damage  for  a  season.  Weather, 
also,  favors  or  hinders  insects,  and  it  is  only  when  we  have  a  com- 
bination of  favorable  conditions  that  they  are  usually  very 
destructive. 

The  principal  insects  are  (1)  Hessian  fly,  (2)  chinch  bug,  (3) 
green  bug  or  plant  louse,  and  (4)  wheat  midge.  Of  these  the  Hes- 
sian fly  and  chinch  bug  are  favored  by  dry  weather  and  the  wheat 
midge  by  moist  weather. 

Hessian  Fly. — The  Hessian  fly  is  a  small  two-winged  insect.  In 
most  of  the  winter  wheat  belt  it  produces  two  broods  a  year,  the  first 
in  August  and  September  and  the  second  during  May  and  June, 
being  earlier  South.  The  fall  brood  lays  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the 
new  fall-sown  wheat.  In  three  to  ten  days,  depending  on  the 
weather,  the  eggs  hatch  and  a  small  worm  or  larva  emerges.  The 
larva  attacks  the  plant  just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  A 
single  larva  will  injure  a  plant  and  three  or  four  may  kill  it.  The 
damage  is  somewhat  regulated  by  the  vigor  of  the  wheat.  The 
larva  soon  goes  into  the  pupa  or  "  flax  seed  "  stage,  when  it  looks 
like  a  small,  brown  flax  seed  attached  to  the  stem  under  the  first 
leaf  sheath.  It  remains  in  this  state  until  the  following  May  when 
the  second  brood  is  hatched. 

Frost  will  kill  either  the  insect  or  its  eggs,  and  it  can  be  controlled 
by  late  planting.  If  planting  can  be  regulated  to  come  about  two 
weeks  before  the  first  frost,  there  will  be  little  danger  from  the  fly. 


140  DISEASES  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES 

Whenever  the  fly  is  noted  as  present  at  harvest  time,  late  planting 
should  be  practised  that  fall. 

Chinch  Bugs. — Chinch  bugs  are  favored  by  dry  climate,  and  are 
seldom  injurious  east  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver.  Two  or  three  dry 
seasons  in  succession  will  favor  their  rapid  increase.  Chinch  bugs 
harbor  in  stubble,  grass  clumps  or  in  weedy  fence-rows  during  the 
winter.  If  grass  is  kept  down  by  clean  culture,  stubble  plowed 
under,  and  fence-rows  fired  late  in  the  fall,  the  bugs  can,  in  a  meas- 
ure, be  controlled. 

The  Plant  Louse. — The  louse  generally  is  found  on  the  wheat 
in  the  fall.  If  conditions  are  favorable  the  following  spring  it  may 
increase  at  an  enormous  rate.  It  is  rarely  injurious  and  no  control 
measures  have  been  proposed. 

The  Wheat  Midge. — This  is  a  small  two-winged  fly  that  lays 
its  eggs  on  the  glumes  of  the  wheat  head  at  about  blossoming  time. 
The  larva  sucks  the  juice  from  the  young  wheat  grains,  causing  them 
to  shrivel  up.  The  pupa  passes  the  winter  in  the 'soil  near  the  base 
of  the  wheat  plant.  No  control  measures  are  proposed  except  deep 
fall  plowing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  rust  in  appearance  and  method  of  spreading. 

2.  Distinguish   between   the  two  kinds   of   smut  as   to   difference   in   ap 

pearance. 

3.  In  mode  of  infection;  in  treatment. 

4.  Why  are  insect  enemies  so  irregular  in  attacks? 

5.  Give  life  history  of  the  Hessian  fly.    Method  of  control. 

6.  Give  control  of  chinch  bugs.  » 

7.  Describe  work  of  the  wheat  midge. 


CHAPTEE  XX 
OATS 

OATS  are  the  fourth  crop  of  importance  in  the  world,  being  ex- 
ceeded by  potatoes,  corn,  and  wheat.  (See  charts,  Chapter  I.)  In 
the  United  States  it  is  the  third  cereal,  being  exceeded  by  corn  and 
wheat.  Oats  are  a  northern  grown  crop  adapted  to  humid  regions. 
East  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  north  of  the  Ohio,  oats  outrank 
wheat  in  value,  and  in  several  of  the  Northern  Tier  outrank  both 
corn  and  wheat. 

Production  of  Oats. — The  oat  crop  of  the  world  for  the  5 -year 
period,  1906-1910,  is  shown  by  the  following  table,  as  reported  by 
the  1910  Yearbook,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture: 

Continent  Bushels 

Europe    2,475,031,000 

North    America    1,227,061,400 

Asia     86,226,600 

Australasia    27,954,000 

Africa    17,835,000 


Total    3,834,108,000 

The  principal  oat-producing  countries  (Fig.  51),  together  with 
the  average  yield  per  acre  for  two  decades,  is  shown  in  the  next  table : 
Six  Countries  Leading  in  Oat  Production 


Average  yield 

Averag 
per 

e  yield 

icre 

1906-1910 

1890-1899 

1900-1909 

United  States  ... 

Bushels 

932,124,400 

Bushels 

26  1 

Bushels 

29  3 

Russia  

852,765  000 

17.8 

200 

Germany  

582,867  000 

40.0 

507 

France 

298  597  000 

29  8 

31  6 

Austria  Hungary  

246,253  000 

25.31 

302 

United  Kingdom  

185,867,200 

43.6 

443 

Total  

3,098,473,600 

The  six  countries  produce  about  four-fifths  of  the  world's  crop. 
It  will  be  noted  with  interest  that  in  every  case  the  yield  per  acre 


1  Austria,  only  for  1890-1899. 


141 


PRODUCTION  OF  OATS 


143 


144 


OATS 


has  increased  during  the  second  decade.  The  average  yield  in  both 
Germany  and  England  is  .comparatively  high,  while  the  two  greatest 
oat-producing  countries,  United  States  and  Russia,  have  rather  low 
yields  per  acre. 


FIG.  53. — Loose  type  of  side  panicle  variety,  sparrow-bill. 

In  the  United  States  (Fig.  52)  and  Eussia,  with  great  level  plains 
and  rather  low  rainfall,  the  farming  is  at  present  extensive  rather 
than  intensive,  as  in  Germany  and  England.  With  the  best  methods 
of  farming  the  present  average  yields  in  the  United  States  could  be 
doubled,  and  at  present  the  movement  is  in  that  direction. 


OATS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  145 

Oats  in  the  United  States. — About  twice  as  much  oats  are 
raised  in  Europe  as  in  North  America.  In  the  United  States  the 
oats  region  consists  of  six  adjacent  States,  namely,  Illinois,  Iowa, 
Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  Indiana,  in  the  order  named. 


FIG.  54. — Compact  side  oats,  and  open  type  of  semiside  oats.     Varieties,  Clydsdale  and 

Black  Finnish. 

The  six  States  produce  55  per  cent  of  the  oat  crop,  but  Illinois  and 
Iowa  far  exceed  the  others. 

While  oats  as  a  crop  appear  to  reach  their  highest  development 
in  quality  and  yield  somewhat  north  of  the  Corn  Belt,  yet  they  are 
10 


146  OATS 

extensively  raised  in  the  Corn  Belt  as  a  crop  to  rotate  with  corn. 
The  actual  value  of  oats  per  acre  is  not  so  great  as  winter  wheat, 
but  oats  are  much  more  convenient  as  a  crop  to  follow  corn,  and  the 
grain  and  straw  are  both  much  needed  by  the  farmers  as  stock  feed. 
Early  History. — While  wheat  and  barley  appear  to  have  had  a 
very  ancient  origin,  and  were  cultivated  from  earliest  times,  little  is 
apparently  known  of  oats  until  about  the  Christian  era.  It  seems  to 
have  originated  as  a  cultivated  plant  in  eastern  Europe,  and  its 
culture  remained  principally  in  temperate  Europe  until  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  Pliny,  in  the  first  century,  wrote  that  the  Ger- 


FIG.  55. — Types  of  oat  grain.  From  left  to  right:  short,  thick  grain  of  black  oats; 
large  white  oats,  variety  Big  Four;  long  grain  early  oats,  variety  Burt;  small  grain  early 
oats,  variety  Kherson. 

mans  lived  on  oatmeal,  and  it  has  always  been  of  some  importance  for 
human  food  in  Europe,  though  for  many  centuries  it  has  been  recog- 
nized as  the  best  of  all  cereals  for  horses. 

Classification  of  Oats. — There  are  at  least  400  to  500  varieties 
of  cultivated  oats  and  they  may  be  classed  into  several  natural  groups 
(Figs.  53,  54,  55,  56  and  57). 

Shape  of  Head. — In  the  spreading  type  of  panicle  the  head  is 
usually  upright  and  the  branches  equally  distributed  on  all  sides.  In 
side  oats  or  "  horsemane  "  oats  the  head  is  usually  drooping  and  the 
branches  on  one  side  (Fig.  53).  There  may  be  found  all  intermedi- 
ate types  between  the  extreme  shapes. 


COLOR  OF  GRAIN 


147 


In  the  compact  panicle  the  branches  are  -usually  shorter  and 
clustered  near  the  central  stem,  while  in  the  open  form  the  branches 
are  usually  longer  and  more  flexible  (Fig.  54). 


FIG.  56. — Three  types  of  early  oats,  of  open  panicle  type. 

and  Texas  Red. 


Left  to  right,  Sixty  Day,  Burt 


Color  of  Grain. — There  are  five  principal  colors  which  may,  for 
convenience,  be  grouped  in  the  following  manner : 

Group  Characteristics 

White  oats   ...Grains  usually  rather  large  and  plump. 
Black  oats  ....  Well  adapted  to  north  temperate  climates,  as  Canada,  but 

not  suited  to  south  temperate  climates,  as  the  Gulf  States. 
Red  oats Grains  long  in  shape,  reddish,  brown,  yellow,  or  grayish  in 

color. 
Yellow  oats  . .  .  While  doing  well  in  the  temperate  climates,  they  are  much 

better    adapted    to    south    temperate    climates    than    the 

black  and  white  oats. 
Gray  oats Several  winter  varieties  in  this  group. 


148  OATS 

Distribution  of  Groups. — White  oats  are  the  most  commonly 
cultivated  oats  north  of  45°  latitude  in  Canada  and  the  northern  tier 
of  states  in  the  United  States.  The  varieties  of  white  oats  are  prac- 
tically all  medium  to  late  in  maturing.  Hardly  a  variety  of  early 
oats  may  be  strictly  classed  as  white  oats.  Black  oats  varieties  are 
generally  similar  to  white  oats  except  in  color. 

The  varieties  of  red  and  yellow  oats  are  undoubtedly  better 
adapted  than  white  or  black  oats  to  south  temperate  climates,  as  the 
region  south  of  the  Ohio  Eiver.  Several  varieties  are  adapted  to  fall 
or  winter  sowing  in  the  South,  and  are  known  as  winter  oats. 

Between  the  two  regions  just  described  lies  a  large  territory  (the 
Corn  Belt)  where  it  is  something  of  a  question  just  which  group  will 
give  best  results.  White  oats  are  generally  grown,  though  they  only 
occasionally  attain  the  good  quality  of  the  white  grown  farther  north. 
The  great  limiting  factor  in  this  region  is  the  coming  of  dry  summer 
weather  before  the  oats  mature.  This  gives  the  early  maturing 
varieties  a  distinct  advantage,  and  throughout  the  Corn  Belt^'he 
early  yellowish  varieties,  as  Kherson,  Sixty  Day,  or  Burt,  are  rapidly 
gaining  in  favor. 

Spring  and  Winter  Oats.< — All  the  oat  crop  north  of  the  Cotton 
Belt  is  spring  sown.  It  is  also  sown  in  spring  in  the  Cotton  Belt, 
but  does  not  yield  so  well  as  fall-sown  oats.  The  fall-sown  varieties 
are  mostly  not  strictly  winter  types,  as  the  same  varieties  are  sown 
as  spring  oats  farther  north.  They  are  hardy  enough  to  withstand 
the  mild  winter  and  continue  growth  slowly.  They  ripen  much 
earlier  than  spring-sown  oats,  thus  avoiding  in  a  degree  the  severe 
summer  rust.  The  red  varieties  are  often  called  "  rust  proof  "  oats. 

Virginia  Grey  or  Turf  oats  are  true  winter,  oats,  requiring  a  long 
latent  period  after  sowing,  and  will  not  produce  a  crop  when  sown 
in  spring. 

Early  and  Late  Oats. — In  general,  varieties  of  oats  will  vary 
from  95  to  120  days  to  mature  from  time  of  sowing.  The  term 
"  early  "  as  applied  to  oats  does  not  mean  that  they  are  sown  at  an 
earlier  date  in  the  spring,  but  only  that  they  mature  in  less  time 
when  sown  on  the  same  date.  Where  the  summer  climatic  condi- 
tions are  favorable  for  the  growth  of  late  oats,  they  not  only  outyield 
early  oats  but  the  common  varieties  are  better  in  color  and  quality. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  OAT  PLANT 


149 


However,  early  oats  have  an  advantage  in  dry  regions  or  where  sum- 
mer drought  is  apt  to  come. 

Hulless  Oats. — There  is  one  kind  of  oats  known  as  "  Chinese 
hulless  "  oats,  in  which  the  kernel  thueshes  out  free  from  the  hull.  It 
does  not  yield  well,  but  is  sometimes  grown  as  a  novelty  (Fig.  57). 


FIG.  57. — On  left,  large  white  oats,  open  panicle,  variety  Big  Four. 

hulless  oats. 


On  right,  Chinese 


Description  of  Oat  Plant.— A  typical  field  of  early  oats  will 
average  about  three  feet  high,  while  late  oats  will  usually  average 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  taller.  A  very  large  growth  of  oats  will 


150 


OATS 


sometimes  average  five  feet.  The  stem,  is  hollow  with  four  to  five 
nodes  and  as  many  leaves.  Leaves  ordinarily  are  about  one-half  inch 
in  width,  but  there  are  certain  robust  late  varieties  with  leaves  one 
inch  wide.  As  compared  with  wheat  the  oat  plant  bears  an  average 
of  at  least  one  more  leaf  per  plant,  and  the  leaves  average  larger  in 
size.  The  stem  of  oats  will  "  straighten  up  "  well  after  being  blown 
down  by  severe  storms,  if  it  is  not  too  mature.  This  is  accomplished 
by  bending  at  the  lower  joints. 

Tillering  or  Stooling. — The  number  of  stems  from  a  seed  will 
vary  with  (a)  soil  conditions  and  (b)  rate  of  planting.  The  tillers 
come  from  latent  buds  at  the  base  of  the  stem.  If  single  oat  plants 
be  planted  one  foot  apart  in  a  rich  garden  soil  and  given  good  care, 
from  ten  to  fifteen  buds  may  be  stimulated  to  develop  into  as  many 
stems.  However,  if  the  plants  be  crowded,  as  under  field  conditions, 
one  plant  to  every  one  or  two  square  inches,  very  few  tillers  develop. 
This  is  well  illustrated  by  some  data  secured  at  the  Nebraska  Experi- 
ment Station  where  oats  were  sown  for  two  years  at  rates  varying 
from  4  to  16  pecks  per  acre.  The  following  table  shows  the  number 
of  stems  to  100  plants.2 

Rate  of  Seeding  and  Tillering 


Year 

Rate  of  sowing  per  acre 

4  pecks 

8  pecks 

14  pecks  in  1907 
16  pecks  in  1908 

1907 

280 
466 

289 

279 

106 
139 

1908                 

Average 

373 

284 

122 

Here  we  see  that  for  the  thick  planting  only  22  plants  in  100  had 
more  than  one  stem,  while  in  the  4-peck  rate  of  seeding  each  plant 
had  from  2  to  3  tillers. 

In  cold  clay  soils  oats  seldom  tiller  much  even  when  sown  thin. 
For  example,  in  Scotland  six  bushels  of  seed  are  sown  per  acre,  as  the 
plants  tiller  very  little  even  if  sown  thinly,  due  to  the  cold  wet  soil. 

Description  of  Oat  Spikelet. — The  various  types  of  oat  panicle 
have  already  been  described.  The  oat  spikelet  normally  bears 

2  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  113,  p.  10,  1910. 


THE  OAT  GRAIN 


151 


two  flowers.  They  are  usually  self-fertilized,  though  natural 
crossing  occasionally  occurs.  Varieties  vary  in  respect  to  the 
development  of  the  second  flower  into  a  grain.  In  some  cases 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  only  the  lower  grain  to  develop,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  are  varieties  that  show  a  strong  tendency 
to  develop  both  grains  equally.  A  few  varieties  develop  three  grains 
normally.  Between  these  are  all  intermediate  stages.  In  general, 
the  second  grain  is  about  two-thirds  the  size  of  the  lower  grain. 

The  Oat  Grain. — Except  in  the  case  of  "  hulless  "  oats  the  oat 
kernel  is  always  tightly  enclosed  in  the  flowering  glume,  called  the 
hull.  The  kernel  and  hull  combined  are  called  a  "  grain  "  (Fig.  55) . 

The  proportion  of  'kernel  in  good  oats  will  usually  average  about 
70  per  cent  and  hull  30  per  cent.  Oats  are  quite  variable  in  this  re- 
spect, however,  the  usual  range  being  from  25  to  35  per  cent  hull, 
with  occasional  extreme  variations  as  low  as  20  per  cent  and  as  high 
as  45  per  cent.  A  good  example  may  be  cited  from  the  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station,  where  36  varieties  showed  a  variation  in  one  season 
of  from  23.9  per  cent  to  36.7  per  cent  hull.3  As  these  data  illustrate 
several  common  variations  in  oat  varieties,  a  list  of  10  selected 
varieties  with  accompanying  data  is  given : 

Characteristics  of  Ten  Common  Varieties  of  Oats 


JS 

Per  cent  of 

jS 

3 

5  year  average 

1 

M 

•3     ' 

1 

CD 

0 

00 

te'o 

0> 

*« 

*3 

• 
o 

a 
T3 

E 

fc,  fl 

-^J3 

J3 

S3§ 

^0 

S  g 

B 

1 

•i 
11 

JG 

<l 

'S3 

II 

If 

00    00 

** 

« 

A 

$* 

I8 

o 

£ 

oS,& 

| 

Black  Mogul.... 

Black   . 

1,233 

36.7j  63.3 

23.5 

96 

112 

45.5 

4,225 

93 

Hvitling  

White  . 

952 

23.9  76.1 

28.0 

82 

107 

60.2 

3,276 

54 

Joanette  1  Blank 

1,146 

24.0  76.0 

29.2 

84 

111 

66.8 

3,630 

54 

Lincoln  

White 

1,032 

27.8  72.2 

28.1 

81 

99 

68.3 

3,471 

51 

Seizure  

Yellow 

1,276 

30.3:  69.7 

26.3 

91 

110 

60.1 

3,690 

61 

Sixty  Day  

Yellow 

1,384 

25.8'  74.2 

27.9 

80 

96 

68.5 

2,448 

36 

Swedish  Select  . 

White 

823 

27.0  73.0  28.7 

82 

101 

60.0 

3,234 

54 

Watson  

White 

1,416 

35.5  64.5 

27.0 

88 

109 

61.6 

3,610 

59 

Welcome  

White 

1,523 

28.1  71.9 

27.0 

73 

104 

63.2 

3,803 

60 

Wideawake  ...    . 

White 

1,268 

26.5  73.5 

29.3 

73 

100 

59.4 

3,922 

66 

Ohio  Bulletin  257,  173. 


152  OATS 

Factors  Affecting  Percentage  of  Hull. — While  there  is  a 
marked  variation  in  percentage  of  hull,  it  does  not  seem  to  be  closely 
related  to  any  particular  character  of  the  grain.  In  fact,  a  variety 
high  in  per  cent  of  hull  one  year  may  be  low  another,  as  noted  by 
Warburton 4  regarding  certain  experiments  in  Wisconsin.  The 
varieties  ranged  from  69.13  to  78.07  per  cent  in  1905,  and  from 
63.71  to  69.86  per  cent  in  1907;  the  variety  with  the  lowest  per- 
centage in  19Q5  being  highest  in  1907. 

Shape  of  grain  has  several  times  been  studied  in  relation  to 
weight  per  bushel.  While  there  is  some  evidence  that  the  long 
slender  type  of  grain  is  likely  to  have  a  higher  percentage  of  hull 
than  the  short  thick  type,  still  it  is  by  no  means  a  constant  relation. 

Weight  per  bushel  does  not  bear  a  close  relation  to  percentage  of 
hull  within  certain  limits,  as  illustrated  by  the  preceding  table  in 
the  Watson  and  Welcome  varieties,  both  weighing  the  same.  In  gen- 
eral, oats  weighing  less  than  28  pounds  per  bushel  will  be  high  in 
per  cent  of  hull,  while  oats  weighing  more  than  34  pounds  per  bushel 
will  be  low  in  hull,  but  little  relation  will  be  found  between  these  two 
limits. 

Varieties  vary  in  percentage  of  hull,  and  a  long  variety  test  cover- 
ing many  years  will  show  average  differences,  but  it  will  be  found  that 
a  variety  averaging  low  in  hull  in  one  region  will  often  average  high 
in  another  place. 

In  conclusion,  the  general  results  indicate  that  the  variety  best 
adapted  to  a  certain  region,  and  therefore  matures  fully  in  the  most 
normal  way,  will  ordinarily  be  low  in  percentage  of  hull.  Those 
varieties  not  well  adapted  naturally  do  not  develop  a  good  kernel  and 
are  high  in  percentage  of  hull.  This  explains  the  reason  why  varie- 
ties may  vary  from  year  to  year.  For  example,  in  a  season  favoring 
early  varieties,  these  are  the  best  developed  and  highest  in  percentage 
of  kernel,  but  in  a  season  favoring  the  late  varieties,  conditions  are 
reversed  and  late  oats  are  then  best  developed  and  higher  in  per 
centage  of  kernel  than  the  early  oats. 

Value  of  Hull  and  Kernel. — The  following  table  gives  the  com- 
parative value,  so  far  as  an  analysis  will  indicate,  of  the  hull  and 

4  Farmers'  Bulletin  420,  15. 


WEIGHT  PER  BUSHEL 


153 


kernel  of  oats.5     The  figures  give  the  total  number  of  pounds  of  the 
constituents  in  100  pounds  of  dry  matter : 

Composition  of  Parts 


Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Oats  grain               • 

3.3 

13.3 

10.7 

67.1 

5.6 

Oats  kernel             .    .    . 

2.2 

16.0 

1.0 

73.1 

7.7 

Oats  hull     

7.2 

3.6 

82.0 

56.1 

1.1 

The  data  show  the  oat  kernel  to  be  very  high  in  protein  and 
fat,  while  the  hull  is  high  in  fiber.  Also  in  comparing  the  carbohy- 
drates in  kernel  and  hull,  it  should  be  noted  that  in  the  oat  kernel 
this  constituent  is  largely  starch,  and  more  valuable  as  a  feed  than 
the  cellulose  material  of  the  hull,  a  form  of  carbohydrate  lower  in 
feeding  value  than  starch.  In  fact,  oat  hulls  are  not  much  different 
in  feeding  value  from  oat  straw. 

Estimating  Value  of  Oat  Grain. — Oats  are  usually  bought  or 
sold  by  weight.  If  we  estimate  the  feeding  value  of  oats  on  the  per 
cent  of  kernel  contained,  it  is  evident  that  oats  containing  75  pounds 
of  kernel  to  100  pounds  of  oats  are  more  valuable  than  those 
containing  only  60  pounds. 

Example:  If  oats  with  25  per  cent  hull  are  worth  $1.25  per  hundred, 
how  much  are  oats  with  40  per  cent  hull  worth,  estimating  the  comparative 
value  on  the  kernel  only? 

Weight  per  Bushel. — The  legal  weight  of  a  measured  bushel  of 
oats  in  the  United  States  is  32  pounds,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
States,  while  in  Canada  it  is  34  pounds. 

Oats  commonly  vary  in  weight  from  25  to  35  pounds  per 
bushel.  Very  heavy  oats  will  occasionally  weigh  40  to  45  pounds 
and  very  light  oats  as  low  as  20  pounds.  The  average  oat  crop 
weighs  less  than  32  pounds  per  bushel.  In  the  market  No.  1  oats 
must  weigh  32  pounds  per  bushel ;  No.  2  oats  28  or  29  pounds;  and 
No.  3  oats  24  pounds.  Ordinarily  there  is  a  difference  in  price  of 
one  to  three  cents  per  bushel  in  a  grade.  All  other  things  being 
equal  the  heavier  oats  will  be  more  valuable,  but  not  always,  as  well 


Farmers'  Bulletin  420,  16. 


154  OATS 

developed  oats  may  sometimes  have  a  light  weight  due  to  certain 
characters  of  the  grain. 

Varieties  having  an  awn  on  the  grain  or  an  extended  loose  hull, 
do  not  settle  close  in  the  measure.  In  such  a  case  well  matured  oats 
with  a  low  per  cent  of  hull  will  weigh  less  than  32  pounds  per 
bushel.  Oats  slightly  damp  do  not  weigh  as  much.  Oats  very  ripe 
and  dry  when  threshed  will  often  be  et  clipped  "  enough  by  the  thresh- 
ing machine  to  increase  the  weight  per  bushel.  All  this  must  be 
considered  in  estimating  the  value  of  oats  when  the  weight  is  known. 

Clipped  Oats. — Oats  are  clipped  in  the  large  elevators  by  passing 
them  through  a  "  scourer  "  or  machine  that  rubs  off  the  awns,  extend- 
ing hull,  the  rachilla  at  the  base  of  the  grain,  or  any  loose  part.  This 
increases  the  weight  per  bushel,  according  to  how  close  the  clipping 
may  be.  The  legal  weight  of  clipped  oats  is  36  pounds  per  bushel. 

Quality  of  Oat  Straw. — Oat  straw  contains  more  protein  and 
fat  than  the  straw  of  other  cereals  or  corn  fodder.  It  does  not  con- 
tain the  long  awns  and  hard  chaff  common  in  wheat  and  barley 
straw,  making  it  more  desirable  as  a  feed.  Also  oat  straw  is  usually 
cut  much  greener  than  other  cereals,  and  is  therefore  softer  and  more 
palatable.  In  fact,  good  green  oat  straw,  well  cured,  is  considered  a 
fair  substitute  for  at  least  a  part  of  the  hay  in  feeding  horses,  when 
not  at  hard  work. 

Proportion  of  Grain  to  Straw. — In  the  data  cited  in  the  pre- 
ceding table  of  varieties  there  is  a  variation  as  an  average  of  five 
years  of  about  one  pound  to  three  pounds  of  straw  to  one  pound  of 
grain.  There  is  no  constant  relation,  but,  in  general,  medium  or 
late  varieties  usually  have  about  two  pounds  of  straw  to  one  pound 
of  grain,  while  early  varieties  produce  somewhat  less  proportion  of 
straw.  The  proportion  of  straw  to  grain  is  comparatively  high  in 
oats,  generally  estimated  as  two  to  one,  while  one  and  one-half  to 
one  in  wheat,  and  one  to  one  in  corn.  Various  factors  increase  the 
proportion  of  straw,  as  soils  rich  in  nitrogen,  thick  planting,  or  un- 
favorable climatic  conditions  while  the  grain  is  ripening  but  after 
the  straw  is  well  grown. 

EXERCISES 

Study  of  Oats  Types. — Oats  belong  to  the  family  of  GraminccB,  the 
genus  avena,  and  species  sativa. 

They  differ  from  wheat  and  rye  mainly  in  having  the  grain  borne  in  a 
panicle  rather  than  in  a  spike. 


EXERCISES 


155 


Oats  are  classified   into  types   largely  on  the  basis  of  shape  of  the 
panicle.    In  this  way  we  have  three  main  types  of  oats: 

1.  Panicled   (branches  of  panicle  diverging  broadly  from  central  axis). 

2.  Compressed    (branches  closely  adjacent  to  the  central  spike). 

3.  Side    (branches  all  inclined  toward  one  side  of  the  central  axis). 

Drawing  Work 

1.  Draw  twice  natural  size  details  of  a  spikelet.     (a)    Show  each  grain, 
awns,  and  outer  glumes.     (6)     Show  the  lower  flower  spread  apart,  label- 
ing outer  glume,  hull,  dorsel  awn,  kernel,  and  palea. 

2.  Draw  spikelet  of  hulless  oats  twice  natural  size. 

3.  Draw  spikelet  of  wild  oats  twice  natural  size. 

4.  Draw  head  of  panicled  oats  natural  size. 

5.  Draw  head  of  side  oats  natural  size. 

Write  a  clear   statement  explaining  wherein  oats   differ  from   wheat 
in   (1)   the  head;    (2)   spikelet;    (3)    grain. 

Descriptive  Terms  for  Oats 

A.  Panicle: 

1.  Shape — spreading,   side. 

2.  Structure — compact,    medium,    open. 

3.  Awns — straight,  twisted,  kneed. 

B.  Spikelet: 

4.  Color — whitish,   yellowish,    reddish. 

5.  Width — wide,  narrow. 

6.  Number  of  grains — 1,  2,  etc. 

C.  Grain: 

7.  Color — white,  yellow,  red,  black. 

8.  Shape — slender,  medium,   plump. 

9.  Crease — full,  narrow. 

10.  Tip — refers   to   extension    of   hull. 

11.  Per  cent  hull. 

12.  Per   cent  kernel. 

On  the  following  outline  describe  several  types  of  oats. 

Outline  for  Describing  Oats 


Name  of  variety  

A.  Panicle: 
1.  Shape  

2.  Structure  

3.  Awns  

B.  Spikelet: 
4.  Color  

5.  Width  

6.  Number  grains. 

C.  Grain: 
7.  Color  

8.  Shape  

9.  Crease  

10.  Tip  

11.  Per  cent  hull.  .  . 

12.  Per  cent  kernel  . 

156  OATS 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  importance  of  oats  and  other  crops. 

2.  Name  leading  continent  in  production  of  oats,  corn,  and  wheat. 

3.  Which  are  the  two  leading  countries  in  production  of  above  crops? 

4.  Is  yield  per  acre  increasing? 

5.  Why  are  yields  so  low  in  Russia  and  in  fhe  United  States? 

6.  In  the  United  States  how  does  the  oat  region  compare  with  the  wheat 

and  corn  regions? 

7.  Describe  principal  types  of  oats  by  shape  of  head;  color  of  grain. 

8.  What  kinds  are  grown  in  your  neighborhood  ? 

9.  Where  are  the  different  types  grown  in  America? 

10.  Where  are  oats  sown  in  the  fall? 

11.  Where  do  early  oats  give  best  yields?     Where  late  oats? 

12.  Give  the  factors  affecting  tillering  of  oats. 

13.  Compare  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  as  to  cross-  and  self-fertilization, 

14.  How  many  grains  in  an  oat  spikelet?     Corn?     Wheat? 

15.  Give  the  factors  affecting  percentage  of  hull  in  oats. 

16.  Give  the  importance  of  weight  per  bushel. 

17.  What  factors  affect  weight  per  bushel? 

IS.  What  is  the  comparative  value  of  hull  and  kernel? 

19.  What  are  clipped  oats? 

20.  What  is  the  value  of  oat  straw? 

21.  How  much  straw  to  grain  in  oats?     Wheat? 

22.  What  factors  would  you  say  influence  per  cent  of  hull? 

23.  Is  weight  per  bushel  related  to  per  cent  hull  ? 

24.  Is  weight  per  bushel  related  to  feeding  value* 


CHAPTER  XXI 
CULTURE  OF  OATS 

THE  oat  crop  is  grown  by  comparatively  simple  cultural  methods. 
It  is  apparently  less  particular  in  the  kind  of  soil  or  preparation  than 
most  crops,  except  buckwheat.  Ordinarily,  it  does  not  respond  as 
quickly  to  fertilizers  or  manures  or  thorough  soil  preparation  as  other 
cereals,  and  hence  is  grown  by  less  intensive  methods. 

Climatic  Requirements. — Oats  require  a  rather  humid  climate. 
It  requires  more  water  to  grow  oats  than  other  of  the  common  grain 
crops.  For  example,  farmers  find  that  an  oat  stubble  is  always 
much  drier  to  plow,  after  harvest,  than  a  wheat  or  barley  stubble. 

Importance  of  Water. — By  growing  crops  in  barrels  or  large 
cans,  it  is  possible  to  determine  how  much  water  is  required  by  dif- 
ferent crops  to  produce  one  pound  of  dry  weight.  Results  of  two  ex- 
periments are  here  cited,  one  by  King  in  Wisconsin  and  the  other  by 
Briggs  and.  Shantz  in  eastern  Colorado : 

Water  Required  in  Proportion  to  Dry  Matter  Produced 


Crop 

Pounds  of  water  to  produce 
one  pound  of  dry  matter 

King's  experi- 
ment in 
Wisconsin 

Briggs  and 
Shantz  's  in 
Colorado 

Oats 

541 

388 

350 

614 
539 
507 
369 

Barley 

Wheat 

Com     .     .     .    .         

Not  only  must  the  supply  of  soil  moisture  be  large  but  a  rather 
cool  summer,  favoring  slow  ripening,  gives  best  results.  Wheat  will 
do  well  in  hotter  and  drier  summer  weather  than  oats. 

This  explains  why  early  oats  often  do  so  well  in  the  Corn  Belt. 
Ripening  early  in  July  they  will  escape  more  of  the  hot,  dry  weather 
of  midsummer  than  later  oats.  It  is  also  one  reason  why  oats,  rela- 
tive to  wheat,  are  so  much  more  important  in  northern  and  north- 
eastern United  States  and  eastern  Canada,  while  wheat  has  a  distinct 
advantage  where  summers  are  hot  and  dry. 

157 


158  OATS 

Soils  Adapted  to  Oats. — Given  a  favorable  climate,  oats  do 
well  on  all  productive  soils.  However,  the  oat  crop  requiring  more 
water  than  other  grain  crops,  most  often  suffers  from  lack  of  water 
and  appears  to  be  favored  by  heavy,  retentive  soils.  In  fact,  many  soils 
too  wet  for  good  corn-growing  produce  excellent  oats.  However,  a 
poorly  drained  soil  is  not  better  suited  for  oats  than  for  wheat  or 
barley.  Very  rich  soil  is  often -not  suited  to  oats,  as  oats  lodge 
readily  when  the  growth  is  rank. 

Wheat  and  barley  are  usually  classed  as  "  delicate  feeders/'  mean- 
ing that  they  require  easily  available  fertility,  and  respond  quickly 
to  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  and  fertilizers.  Corn  is-consid- 
ered  less  sensitive  to  soil  conditions,  and  is  sometimes  called  a 
"coarse  feeder."  While  oats  apparently  can  not  utilize  coarse 
manure  so  well  as  corn,  they  are  considered  even  less  sensitive  to  good 
preparation  and  fertilizers. 

While  all  the  cereals  do  well  on  a  virgin  soil  it  is  often  true  that 
long  after  wheat  and  barley  cease  to  give  good  crops  without  fer- 
tilizers or  manure,  both  corn  and  oats  can  be  profitably  raised.  In 
the  older  States  where  oats  do  well,  as  New  York,  wheat-growing  is 
largely  concentrated  on  the  best  soils,  while  oats  are  generally  grown 
on  all  farm  land. 

In  comparing  the  relative  importance  of  climate  and  soil  it  ap- 
pears that  a  favorable  climate,  namely,  sufficient  moisture  with  a 
slow  ripening  season,  is  more  important  than  character  of  soil. 

Fertilizer  and  Manure  for  Oats. — On  general  grain  farms  or 
grain  and  hay  farms  where  oats  are  grown,  fertilizers  and  manure  are 
ordinarily  applied  to  those  crops  in  the  rotation  that  responds  most 
readily  to  fertilizing.  The  fertilizer  is  adjusted  to  the  rotation  as 
a  whole  rather  than  some  particular  crop.  Since  the  effect  of  a 
fertilizer  usually  lasts  more  than  one  year  and  manure  several  years, 
all  crops  benefit. 

In  a  typical  rotation,  as  corn,  and  then  wheat,  followed  by  clover 
and  grass  for  two  or  more  years,  the  wheat  crop  is  usually  the  first 
crop  to  which  fertilizer  is  applied,  while  the  manure  is  applied  to  the 
sod  land  to  be  broken  for  corn,  since  corn  can  utilize  coarse  manure 
to  good  advantage. 


PREPARATION  OF  SEED-BED 
A  5-Year  Rotation 


159 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 
(fertilizer) 

Clover 
and  grass 

Grass 
(manure) 

In  this  case  no  direct  fertilization  would  be  applied  to  the  oats, 
but  they  would  benefit  from  manure  applied  to  corn. 

On  heavy  cold  soils  farmers  often  find  it  profitable  to  apply  some 
fertilizer  to  all  cereal  crops  to  give  a  good  spring  growth.  In  many 
regions  where  the  oat  crop  is  grown  extensively,  little  or  no  wheat  is 
cultivated,  and  the  oats  receive  fertilizer.  This  is  particularly  true 
where  oats  are  used  as  a-  nurse  crop  for  young  grass  and  clover,  in 
part  for  the  benefit  of  the  seeding. 

Kind  of  Fertilizer. — Fertilizer  applied  directly  to  oats  appar- 
ently gives  best  results  in  northeastern  United  States  where  soils  are 
heavy  clay,  and  in  the  South  on  winter  oats.  In  this  region 
usually  more  potash  is  recommended  for  oats  than  for  wheat  or 
barley,  probably  due  to  the  heavy  growth  of  straw  and  tendency  to 
lodge.  For  example,  a  complete  fertilizer  for  wheat,  commonly  rec- 
ommended, would  contain  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  in 
ratio  of  4-8-5  or  4-12-4,  while  for  oats  4-6-6  or  4-6-9  would  prob- 
ably be  recommended.  From  100  to  400  pounds  per  acre  are  applied. 

In  the  Corn  Belt  States  it  seems  rather  clear  that  for  all  crops 
phosphorus  is  the  element  least  available  in  the  soil.  Experiments, 
in  general,  show  that  here  phosphate  alone  or  with  only  a  small 
amount  of  nitrogen  and  potash  is  most  profitable.  Oats  are  here 
grown  in  rotation  with  corn,  wheat,  and  grass,  and  very  little 
fertilizer  is  applied  directly  to  the  oat  crop. 

Preparation  of  Seed-bed. — In  practically  all  grain-growing  sec- 
tions it  is  the  custom  to  give  less  preparation  for  oats  than  for  either 
wheat,  corn,  or  barley.  In  the  Middle  West  experiment  stations, 
with  loam  soils,  practically  as  good  results  have  been  secured  with 
oats  when  corn-stalk  land  is  prepared  by  double  disking  as  when 
plowed  and  thoroughly  harrowed.  While  with  wheat  or  corn,  early, 
deep  plowing  and  thorough  harrowing  is  always  recommended.  In 
the  eastern  States  where  clay  soils  are  common,  plowing  for  oats  has 


160  OATS 

given  increased  yields,  as  reported  by  the  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania 
Experiment  Stations.  However,  even  on  heavy  soils  in  good  tilth  and 
well  farmed,  disking  without  plowing  may  give  good  results.  For 
example,  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  previous  to  1899,1  when 
plowing  was  compared  with  disking  for  oats,  the  yields  were  52.8  and 
48.7  bushels  per  acre,  a  gain  of  4.1  bushels  for  plowing.  Fifteen 
years  later  (1909-1912)  when  the  test  was  repeated,  land  prepared 
by  plowing  and  disking  yielded  58.6  and  61.9,  a  difference  of  3.3 
bushels  in  favor  of  disking.  The  land  had  no  doubt  been  much  im- 
proved in  physical  condition  meantime,  indicating  that  on  such  land 
plowing  was  not  needed  for  oats.  However,  the  early  data  indicate 
that  on  heavy  farm  land  in  average  condition,  plowing  is  best,  but 
on  land  in  high  tilth  it  will  not  be  necessary.  This  is  also  supported 
by  the  practice  in  some  places  on  clay  land,  of  not  plowing  when  oats 
follow  potatoes,  as  potato  land  is  usually  in  high  tilth,  while  corn 
stubble  would  be  plowed. 

Preparing  Seed  Oats. — If  an  average  sample  of  oats  be  ex- 
amined the  grains  will  be  seen  to  vary  in  size.  The  small  grains  are 
the  second  or  "twin"  grains  in  the  spikelet  (p.  151).  By  careful 
hand  separation  it  has  been  shown  that  these  small  grains  are  not  as 
productive  as  the  large  grains.2  However,  where  machines  have 
been  used  to  separate  large  seeds  from  the  ordinary  oats,  very  little 
improvement  in  yield  has  been  secured.  This  is  shown  by  results 
from  both  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  Experiment  Stations. 

Oats,  Average  Yield  Per  Acre  in  Bushels 

Heaviest  or 

Ordinary  largest  seed 

seed  from  separated  by 

Station  thresher  fanning  mill 

Kansas 3     29.89  30.90 

Nebraska 4  58.30  58.80 


Average    ....................   44.09  44.85 

Treating  Oats  for  Smut.  —  The  loose  smut  of  oats  is  common 
everywhere.  The  affected  heads  become  a  mass  of  black  spores  at 
about  the  time  oats  bloom.  These  spores  are  carried  about  by  the 
wind,  finding  lodgement  on  the  grains  of  sound  oats.  Here  they 


Bulletin   138,  46;   also  257,  266. 

2  Ohio  Bulletin  257,  274. 

3  Kansas  Bulletin  74,  199. 
«  Nebraska   Bulletin    104. 


TIME  OF  SEEDING  OATS  161 

remain  until  the  oats  are  sown  the  following  spring.  When  the  oat 
grain  sprouts,  the  smut  spore  also  germinates  and  infects  the  young 
oat  plant.  It  lives  within  the  plant  as  a  small  thread-like  parasite, 
stunting  the  plant  and  turning  the  head  into  a  mass  of  black  spores. 

The  smut  is  carried  from  one  crop  to  another  by  spores  attached 
to  the  grain,  and  can  be  easily  prevented  by  some  treatment  that 
will  destroy  the  spores  but  not  injure  the  grain.  Hot  water,  just  hot 
enough  to  kill  the  spores  but  not  the  grain,  is  used,5  also  a  solution 
of  formalin.  The  latter  is  most  easily  applied. 

Formalin  Treatment. — Standard  formalin  is  a  40  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  the  gas  formaldehyde  in  water.  Be  sure  the  solution  is 
standard  strength.  Use  one  pound  of  formalin  to  40  gallons  of 
water.  Spread  out  the  oats  on  a  floor  or  in  a  tight  wagon  box. 
Apply  the  formalin  solution  with  a  sprinkling  pot,  shoveling  over  the 
oats  at  the  same  time  until  all  are  thoroughly  wet.  v  It  will  require 
about  one  gallon  of  solution  to  a  bushel  of  oats.  Then  pile  the  oats 
and  cover  with  wet  sacks  for  several  hours.  This  is  important,  so 
the  strong  fumes  given  off  by  the  formalin  may  have  full  effect  on 
the  smut  spores.  The  oats  are  then  spread  out  to  dry. 

Time  of  Seeding  Oats. — In  the  United  States  very  early  sowing 
is  important.  The  reason  appears  to  be,  the  need  of  oats  for  rather 
humid  and  cool  climatic  conditions  for  normal  development.  The 
more  advanced  the  growth  before  the  high  temperature  and  drier 
weather  of  midsummer  comes,  the  better  the  quality  and  yield  are 
likely  to  be.  Early  maturing  oats  also  avoid  rust  to  some  degree. 

Experiments  on  time  of  sowing  have  been  conducted  at  several 
experiment  stations.  The  sowings  usually  covered  a  period  of  six  to 
eight  weeks,  the  first  one,  as  soon  as  soil  could  be  worked.  In  the 
United  States  the  results  have  always  favored  the  early  sowings. 
However,  in  northeastern  Canada,  and  the  northern  oat-growing 
sections  in  general,  where  the  season  is  short  and  oats  mature  after 
the  midseason  heat,  early  sowing  is  less  important,  medium  sowing 
doing  as  well.  But  going  southward,  early  sowing  becomes  more  and 
more  important. 

The  principle  is  illustrated  by  an  experiment  from  the  Illinois 

5  For  detailed  directions  regarding  hot  water  for  smut,  see  U.  S~ 
Farmers'  Bulletin  250. 

11 


162 


OATS 


Experiment  Station.6  The  experiment  was  continued  for  five  years, 
the  sowings  beginning  in  March  (except  one  year)  were  continued  at 
intervals  of  about  one  week,  with  the  following  results : 

Yield  of  Oats  in  Bushels  for  Each  Sowing 


Year 

First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

1888  
1889  

66.3 
48.1 

56.5 
415 

48.8 
41  3 

49.4 
36  3 

33  1 

25  0 

1890 

44  1 

AS  1 

365 

300 

28  1 

iq  A 

1892.    . 

460 

424 

A7  7 

41  7 

42  4 

23  Q 

1893  

65.1 

532 

442 

31  5 

Average  

51.9 

47.7 

43.7 

39.3 

34.5 

25.0 

The  highest  yield  was  secured  with  the  first  sowing  three  years 
and  with  the  second  and  third  sowings  in  other  years, 

In  the  Gulf  States  much  of  the  oat  crop  is  fall  sown,  during 
October  and  November.  Fall-sown  oats  ripen  two  to  three  weeks 
earlier  than  spring-sown,  a  distinct  advantage.  Taking  selected 
States  from  south  to  north,  the  time  of  spring  sowing  is  shown  by 
the  following  data 7 : 

Dates  of  Souring  Oats  in  Different  Sections 

State  Beginning 

Alabama     Jan.    31 

Tennessee   Feb.    22 

Kentucky   Mar.     8 

Ohio    Mar.  27 

New  York Apr.    19 

Maine May      2 

South  Dakota    Apr.      8 

In  general,  spring  sowing  extends  over  a  period  of  five  weeks 
in  the  South,  gradually  decreasing  to  a  period  of  three  weeks  in  the 
Dakotas.  Sowing  in  the  first  half  of  the  period  is  better 'than  the 
last  half.  While  South  Dakota  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  New  York 


General 

Ending 

Feb.    20 

Mar.     9 

Mar.  11 

Apr.      1 

Mar.  23 

Apr.    11 

Apr.      9 

Apr.    22 

Apr.    30 
May    13 

May    18 
June     1 

Apr.    18 

Apr.    30 

"Illinois  Bulletin  31,  385. 

7U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Bulletin  85. 


DEPTH  OF  SOWING  163 

and  Maine,  sowing  is  much  later  in  the  latter  States,  owing  to  the 
later  thawing  out  of  frost  in  spring  and  heavy  wet  soil  which  must 
be  given  time  to  dry  before  plowing. 

Rate  of  Seeding. — Numerous  long-time  experiments  have  been 
made  to  determine  the  best  rate  of  seeding  oats.  Eesults  practically 
agree  on  eight  to  ten  pecks  giving  highest  net  returns.  Where  drill- 
ing and  broadcast  sowing  have  been  compared,  usually  about  two 
pecks  more  per  acre  are  required  when  sown  broadcast. 

The  rate  of  seeding  is  influenced  by  the  tendency  to  tiller  in  dif- 
ferent soils  and  the  amount  of  rainfall.  In  dry-farming  regions  and 
under  irrigation,  five  to  six  pecks  are  sown.  The  warm,  dry  soils 
favor  tillering  (see  p.  150).  The  other  extreme  is  found  in  Scot- 
land where  oats  seldom  tiller,  and  six  bushels  per  acre  are  sown.  On 
many  cold  or  heavy  soils  three  to  four  bushels  are  sown. 

Method  of  Sowing. — In  sowing  seed  there  are  two  important 
considerations,  to  distribute  the  seed  evenly  and  at  the  proper  depth. 
This  can  best  be  accomplished  by  use  of  a  grain  drill.  By  very 
careful  work,  good,  uniform  stands  will  be  secured  by  broadcasting, 
though  it  usually  takes  one  or  two  pecks  more  seed  per  acre.  When 
this  is  accomplished,  the  broadcast  will  usually  yield  as  well  as 
drilled.  This  was  demonstrated  at  the  Nebraska  Station  during  a 
test  for  four  years,  where  the  yields  were  almost  the  same.  Similar 
results  were  secured  at  Ohio.  At  Kansas,  Illinois,  and  Iowa  better 
results  in  several  tests  were  secured  by  drilling,  the  increase  usually 
amounting  to  two  to  six  bushels  per  acre.  Under  average  farm  con- 
ditions, there  is  no  doubt  that  drilling  is  the  most  practical  method 
of  securing  a  good  stand. 

Depth  of  Sowing. — Oats  are  sown  very  early  in  the  spring  when 
the  soil  is  likely  to  be  cold  and,  also,  well  supplied  with  moisture. 
There  is  always  danger  that  seeds,  more  than  one  inch  deep  at  this 
time  of  year,  will  rot  or  give  poor,  weak  plants.  In  a  number  of  ex- 
periments where  oats  have  been  planted  at  depths  ranging  from  one 
to  four  inches,  the  one-inch  depth  has  given  best  results.  This 
is  shown  in  the  following  data  from  the  Ohio  Station.8 

8  Ohio  Bulletin  138,  51. 


164 


OATS 

Influence  of  Depth  of  Sowing  Oats 


Average 
grain, 
bushels 

Yield  per 
acre,  straw, 
pounds 

Weight 
per  bushel 

Straw  per 
bushel  of 
grain 

1  inch 

5601 

2655 

28.5 

474 

2  inches 

52.45 

2192 

29.5 

41.8 

3  inches  .  . 

48.28 

1955 

29.0 

40.4 

4  inches  .  .        

48.28 

1775 

29.0 

36.7 

There  would  be  some  exceptions  to  the  above.  In  regions  of 
low  rainfall,  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  where  the  soil  is  often  loose 
and  dry  in  the  spring,  there  is  little  danger  of  seed  rotting  and  it  is 
often  best  to  plant  two  to  three  inches  deep  to  insure  sufficient 
moisture. 

One  of  the  common  faults  in  sowing  oats  broadcast  is  getting  a 
part  of  the  seed  too  shallow  and  a  part  too  deep.  It  is  important  to 
level  the  land  first  and  cover  with  some  tool  that  works  at  a  shallow, 
uniform  depth,  as  a  disk  harrow  or  a  narrow  shovel  cultivator. 

Oats  as  a  Nurse  Crop. — Oats  are  not  considered  to  be  as  desir- 
able a  crop  to  sow  grass  or  clover  with  as  wheat  or  barley.  Oats  have 
more  foliage  and  leave  the  ground  drier  after  harvest.  However, 
it  is  the  principal  small  grain  crop  in  many  regions,  and  for  various 
reasons  is  used  to  seed  with  in  other  places. 

In  this  case,  drilling  the  oats  is  better  than  broadcasting,  as  the 
grass  and  clover  will  get  more  sunshine,  especially  if  the  drill  rows 
are  run  north  and  south.  Early  varieties  are  preferred  to  late,  as 
the  foliage  is  not  so  heavy.  Thin  sowing  is  often  desirable,  especially 
on  strong  land — not  more  than  six  pecks  per  acre.  When  the  season 
is  dry,  it  will  favor  the  seeding  to  cut  the  oats  early  for  hay. 

Sowing  Oats  in  Mixtures. — Oats  and  barley  are  very  commonly 
grown  as  a  mixture,  especially  in  eastern  Canada.  At  the  Ontario 
Experimental  Farm  extensive  experiments  have  been  made,  showing 
that  a  mixture  of  oats  and  barley  always  yields  more  grain  per  acre 
than  either  crop  sown  alone.  For  six  years,  barley  and  oats  were 
mixed  in  various  proportions  and  sown  at  different  rates  of  seeding. 
One  bushel  each  of  oats  and  barley  produced  the  largest  yield  of 
grain.  Where  the  oat  straw  is  used  as  feed  there  is  some  objection 


CULTIVATION  OF  OATS 


165 


to  mixed  barley  straw,  owing  to  the  long  beards.     Early  oats  should 
be  used  in  order  to  ripen  with  the  barley. 

Oats  and  Canada  field  peas  are  often  sown  to  be  cut  either  green 
for  soiling  or  cured  as  hay.  It  makes  an  excellent  forage,  equal  to 
timothy  hay.  About  equal  amounts  of  oats  and  peas  (by  measure) 
are  mixed  and  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  to  three  bushels  per  acre. 

Where  the  oat  stubble  is  used  as  fall  pasture,  it  may  be  improved 
by  sowing  two  to  three  pounds  of  rape  with  the  oats.  It  may  be 
sown  with  the  oats,  but  preferably  two  or  three  weeks  later,  and 
harrowed  in.  After  the  oats  are  harvested  the  rape  will  grow  until 
frost. 

Cultivation  of  Oats. — Cultivation  is  recognized  as  of  value  to 
many  crops,  as  vegetables  or  corn.  The  question  has  often  arisen  in 
connection  witli  the  culture  of  small  grains.  Tests  have  been  made 
where  oats  were  sown  in  drill  rows  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart, 
and  cultivation  given  with  various  tools.  In  general,  sowing  in  wide 
rows  has  not  given  increased  yields  except  under  very  dry  conditions. 
Where  oats  are  sown  in  regular  six-  or  eight-inch  drill  rows,  increased 
yields  have  been  obtained  in  dry  years  by  harrowing  or  by  using  a 
weeder. 

The  oats  should  be  allowed  to  become  well  rooted,  about  three 
weeks'  growth,  and  may  then  be  harrowed  with  very  little  damage 
to  the  oats.  Ordinarily,  two  or  three  harrowings,  about  one  week 
apart,  may  be  given  before  the  growth  is  too  large.  A  peg-tooth 
harrow,  set  at  a  good  slant,  is  used,  or  better,  a  weeder. 

However,  the  oats  should  be  drilled,  as  a  large  percentage  of  the 
plants  are  likely  to  be  destroyed  with  broadcast  oats.  A  comparison 
of  harrowing,  drilled,  or  broadcast  oats  was  made  at  Nebraska  with 
an  average  for  four  years  as  follows  9 : 

Influence  of  Harrowing  Oats 


Method  of  sowing 

Treatment 

Average  yield, 
bushels 

Gain  or  loss  from 
harrowing 

Drilled 

Harrowed 

632 

Drilled 

Not  harrowed 

57.9 

5  3  bushels  gain. 

Broadcast.      .    .  . 

Harrowed  

56.9 

Broadcast  

Not  harrowed  .... 

58.8 

1.9  bushels,  loss. 

•Nebraska  Bulletin  113,  14. 


166  OATS 

During  a  period  of  seven  years  when  drilled  oats  were  cultivated, 
there  was  a  loss  certain  seasons,  the  indications  being  that  it  only 
paid  in  rather  dry  years  and  when  the  soil  was  in  good  condition. 
It  is  doubtful  if  harrowing  would  pay  on  heavy  soils  or  when  the 
spring  is  wet. 

Spraying  for  Weeds. — Wild  mustard  is  one  of  the  serious  pests 
in  oat  fields  of  the  Northern  States.  Mustard  seed  can  be  removed 
from  seed  oats  by  careful  screening,  but  this  is  often  neglected  or  the 
soil  is  infected.  The  mustard  can  be  destroyed  by  spraying,  a  solu- 
tion of  iron  sulfate  or  copper  sulfate  being  cheapest.  A  twenty 
per  cent  iron  sulfate  solution  (75  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water)  or 
a  three  per  cent  copper  sulfate  solution  (12  pounds  to  50  gallons  of 
water)  is  effective.  About  fifty  gallons  per  acre  is  required  for  a 
thorough  spraying.  The  spray  should  be  applied  before  the  first  seed 
pods  are  formed,  to  be  most  effective.  Usually,  a  large  two-horse 
spraying  machine,  such  as  used  for  potatoes,  is  used  on  large  fields. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  in  America  would  you  expect  to  find  the  best  oat  climate? 

2.  Where  would  you  expect  early  oats  to  have  an  advantage  ?     Where  late 

oats? 

3.  Compare  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  barley  in  their  response  to  fertilizers. 

As  to   soil   requirements. 

4.  Compare  the  use  of  fertilizer  or  manure  directly  on  the  oat  and  wheat 

crops. 

5.  Give  the  composition  of  a  common  oat  fertilizer. 

6.  Explain   different  methods   of   preparing  seed-bed  for  oats. 

7.  Why  is  plowing  more  important  on  some  soils  than  on  others? 

8.  Are  small  or  weak  plants  eliminated  in  nature?      (See  p.  17.) 

9.  Describe  oat  smut. 

10.  How  would  you  determine  the  per  cent  of  smut  in  a  field? 

11.  Describe  the  treatment  of  seed  oats  for  smut. 

12.  Give  apparent  reasons  for  early  sowing  of  oats. 

13.  Where  are  oats  fall  sown  ? 

14.  Give  the  variation  in  rate  of  seeding. 

15.  Why  will  drilling  oats  give  better  results  under  average  conditions? 

16.  What  is  proper  depth  of  sowing? 

17.  Discuss  oats  as  a  nurse  crop. 

18.  Name  common  mixtures  in  which  oats  are  sown. 

19.  Give  advantages  claimed  for  mixtures. 

20.  Has  it  been  found  profitable  to  cultivate  oats  while  the  crop  is  grown, 

as  we  do  corn  or  potatoes? 

21.  Tell  how  to  destroy  mustard  by  spraying. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
HARVESTING  AND  UTILIZING  THE  OAT  CROP 

A  VERY  high  percentage  of  the  oat  crop  that  would  grade  No.  1  or 
No.  2  oats  when  it  reaches  maturity,  is  damaged  one  to  three  grades 
by  careless  harvesting  methods  and  handling  before  it  reaches  market. 
In  fact,  practically  all  damage  comes  after  harvest,  and  principally 
either  in  the  shock  or  stack  (Fig.  58). 

Time  of  Cutting. — The  wheat  crop  usually  continues  to  gain  in 
weight  up  to  the  time  it  is  dead  ripe,  but  oats  seem  to  give  maximum 
yield  when  cut  in  the  dough  stage.  With  fully  ripe  oats  there  is 
often  some  actual  loss,  due  to  shattering.  Also,  oats  cut  slightly 
green  usually  have  a  better  color,  being  lighter  with  a  slightly  green 
tinge.  The  half  green  straw  is  more  palatable  as  feed,  an  important 
item  on  many  farms. 

The  above  advantages  are  partly  offset  by  the  slower  curing  of 
the  greener  straw  and  consequent  increased  danger  from  damage 
while  in  shock  or  stack. 

Methods  of  Harvesting. — Oats  are  usually  cut  with  a  self 
binder.  Perhaps  the  best  grade  of  oats  is  secured  by  the  old  method 
before  binders  were  used.  The  oats  could  be  cut  rather  green  and 
left  in  loose  gavels  for  a  few  hours  before  binding.  This  would  be 
impracticable  nowadays.  The  bundles  'should  be  rather  small  and 
bound  low  enough  to  leave  the  head  part  loose. 

Oats  are  sometimes  cut  with  the  header  or  combined  harvester  in 
the  Far  West,  but  the  custom  is  not  nearly  so  common  as  with  wheat. 

Shocking  Oats. — In  good  curing  weather,  bound  oats  may  be 
set  at  once  into  compact  round  shocks  with  one  or  two  cap  sheaves. 
In  damp  weather,  part  green  oats  must  be  handled  with  skill  to 
secure  grain  and  straw  free  from  must  or  mold.  The  bundles  may 
be  set  up  at  once  in  long  shocks,  two  by  two.  A  day  later  the 
bundles  can  be  reset  into  a  compact  round  shock,  and  capped  with 
two  bundles  (Fig.  59).  Sometimes  it  is  advisable  to  allow  green 
oats  to  lie  on  the  ground  one  day  and  then  set  into  round  shocks, 
though  the  shock  will  never  "  set "  so  well  when  straw  is  half  cured. 

167 


168  HARVESTING  AND  UTILIZING  THE  OAT  CROP 


STORING  OATS  IN  BARNS  OR  STACKS 


169 


The  secret  of  securing  fine,  sweet  oats,  of  good  color,  is  proper 
curing  in  the  shock. 

Threshing  Oats.- — When  a  threshing  machine  is  available,  just 
as  soon  as  the  oats  are  cured,  it  is  practicable  and  cheaper  to  thresh 
from  the  shock.  Investigations  in  Minnesota  have  shown  a  cost  of 
about  four  cents  a  bushel  to  thresh  from  the  shock,  and  about  five 
cents  to  stack  and  thresh.  If  oats  can  not  be  threshed  at  once  from 
the  shock,  they  are  then  in  danger  of  injury  from  rain.  A  heavy 
storm  or  two  may  easily  damage  oats  enough  to  lower  them  one  or 
two  market  grades.  This  means  a  loss  of  three  to  four  cents  per 


FIG.  59. — Good  shocks  of  oats,  well  capped. 

bushel.     When  used  for  home  feeding,  the  loss  may  be  even  greater 
if  the  straw  is  also  valued. 

Storing  Oats  in  Barns  or  Stacks. — On  the  eastern  farms  there 
is  usually  barn  room  -enough  to  store  the  oats  in  straw,  but  this  is  not 
the  case  in  other  places.  Stacking  is  an  art  acquired  only  by  long 
experience,  and  only  a  few  principles  can  be  mentioned.  A  good 
stack  must  be  built  very  compact  in  the  center,  so  that  in  settling 
the  outer  layers  settle  more  than  the  center,  thus  giving  a  down- 
ward slant  to  the  straw.  To  accomplish  this  the  stack  is  kept  high  in 
the  center,  especially  above  the  bulge.  One  danger  in  a  high  center 
is  that  the  stack  will  spread  as  it  settles.  To  prevent  this,  the  cone 


170  HARVESTING  AND  UTILIZING  THE  OAT  CROP 

of  the  stack  must  be  carried  upward  in  rather  straight  lines,  some- 
what independent  of  the  outer  tier  or  two,  which  are  kept  loose. 
The  center  of  the  stack  should  be  well  bound  in  by  careful  overlap- 
ping, and  well  tied  across  the  center.  Sometimes  a  long  stake  (six 
to  eight  feet)  or  two  is  driven  in  the  center,  to  better  bind  the  center 
bundles. 

DISEASES    AND    INSECTS    AFFECTING    OATS 

Oat  Smut  and  Rust.— ^The  nature  and  control  of  oat  smut  have 
been  described  (Chapter  XIX).  While  smut  does  enormous  dam- 
age to  the  oat  crop,  its  injury  is  probably  small  compared  with  the 
damage  inflicted  by  rust.  There  is  no  effective  method  of  combating 
rust.  There  are  two  forms,  known  as  the  crown  or  red  rust,  and 
stem  rust.  The  rusts  usually  appear  in  early  summer,  or  about  the 
latter  part  of  June.  If  the  weather  is  humid  and  warm  they  spread 
very  rapidly.  Heavy  dew  and  a  thick,  heavy  growth  of  foliage, 
that  prevents  drying,  favors  the  spread  of  rust. 

Ordinarily,  early  sown  oats  and  early  varieties  are  least  injured, 
as  the  leaf  and  stem  tissues  may  become  tough  and  well  matured  be- 
fore the  rust  becomes  general.  Certain  varieties  show  considerable 
rust  resistance,  as  the  so-called  red  rust-proof  varieties  of  the  South, 
although  when  these  varieties  are  sown  as  winter  oats,  their  early 
maturity  avoids  much  damage  from  rust.  . 

Spikelet  blight  is  very  common  in  some  seasons.  The  lower 
spikelets,  sometimes  one-half  of  the  head,  turn  white  and  are  barren. 
The  cause  is  not  understood  nor  is  a  remedy  known. 

Blade  blight  occurs  usually  early  in  the  season,  and  is  charac- 
terized by  a  yellowing  and  final  dying  of  the  leaves.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  a  bacterial  disease,  and  no  remedy  is  known.  It  should  not  be 
confused  with  the  yellowing  due  to  poor  nutrition,  which  often  takes 
place  on  wet  land  or  soil  in  poor  physical  condition. 

UTILIZING   THE   OAT   CROP 

Most  of  the  oat  crop  is  utilized  as  stock  feed,  especially  for  horses. 
It  has  no  important  use  in  the  arts.  A  small  amount  is  manufactured 
into  oatmeal.  The  only  commercial  by-product  is  the  oat  hulls,  from 
oatmeal  mills. 

Data  are  collected  each  year  and  reported  in  the  Yearbook  of  the 


MARKET  GRADES  171 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  regarding  the  amount 
of  oats  shipped  out  of  the  county  where  grown.  For  the  ten  years, 
1900-1909,  this  amounted  to  28.7  per  cent  of  the  crop  or  an  annual 
movement  of  246,000,000  bushels.  The  percentage  varied  from  19.5 
per  cent  to  32.7  per  cent.  Most  of  this  goes  to  other  parts  of  the 
country  for  stock  feed ;  the  principal  movement  being  from  the  six 
states,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  Indiana, 
to  the  eastern  and  southern  States. 

(Preparing  for  Market. — Farmers  ordinarily  market  oats  as 
they  come  from  the  threshing  machine,  but  in  the  large  terminal 
elevators,  where  they  accumulate,  a  large  percentage  of  the  com- 
mercial oats  are  given  some  treatment  to  prepare  them  for  final  ship- 
ment. The  legal  weight  of  No.  1  oats  is  32  pounds  per  bushel,  but 
the  bulk  of  commercial  oats  will  fall  below  this  standard.  In  the 
large  elevators,  they  are  often  cleaned  and  scoured  some,  which  will 
raise  the  weight  and  improve  the  appearance.  Very  large  quantities 
are  also  bleached  with  sulfur  fumes,  to  improve  the  color.  Large 
bleaching  towers  will  handle  several  thousand  bushels  per  day,  at  a 
relatively  small  cost. 

A  drying  tower  is  also  in  connection  with  the  large  elevators, 
where  hot,  dry  air  may  be  passed  through  the  grain,  reducing  the 
percentage  of  moisture  to  any  desired  degree.  Oats  sometimes 
reach  the  market  with  eighteen  or  twenty  per  cent  moisture,  but  if 
they  are  to  be  stored  or  shipped,  especially  by  water,  the  moisture 
should  be  reduced  to  twelve  or  fourteen  per  cent.  Otherwise  there 
is  great  danger  of  loss  by  heating  and  molding. 

Market  Grades. — For  convenience  in  marketing,  oats  are  graded 
at  the  large  terminal  markets  by  official  inspectors.  The  oats  are 
bought  and  sold  very  largely  on  these  grades.  There  are  six  prin- 
cipal market  classes,  as  follows : 

White  Oats,  Grades  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Mixed  Oats,  Grades  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Red  or  Rust-proof  Oats,  Grades  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

White  Clipped  Oats,  Grades  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Mixed  Clipped  Oats,  Grades  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

Purified  Oats,  oats  chemically  treated. 

For  more  detailed  description  of  the  grades,  see  appendix. 


172 


HARVESTING  AND  UTILIZING  THE)  OAT  CROP 


EXERCISES 

OAT    JUDGING 

Oats  are  judged  on  the  basis  of  their  value  for  feed,  since  this  is  the 
principal  use. 

Thoroughly  review  the  matter  in  Chapter  XX  of  text. 

Materials. — Threshed  samples  of  oats  representing  large  white  and 
black  oats,  red  oats,  and  early  oats;  also  miscellaneous  local  samples,  and 
one  set  of  official  grades. 

Sampling. — First  mix  grain  thoroughly  and  dip  out  about  a  heaping 
teaspoonful. 

Method  of  Analysis. — First  analyze  the  samples,  filling  out  the  follow- 
ing blank,  then  score  samples  from  this  data. 

Report  Card  on  Threshed  Oats 
(Express  data  in  per  cent) 


Name  of  sample  

Color.  . 

Size: 
Large  

Small  

Weight  per  bushel  

Soundness  and  purity: 
Damaged  grain 

Foreign  matter  . 

Size  of  grain  

Must,  smut,  etc  

Per  cent  of  hull  

Score  Card  for  Oats 


Uniformity,  20  per  cent: 
(a)  In  color  10 

(6)  In  size                                10 

Quality,  80  per  cent: 
(a)  Weight  per  bushel            25 

(6)  Soundness  and  dirt  10 
(c)  Per  cent  of  hull  25 
(d)  Size  of  grain  10 

(e)   Must,  smut  10 

Total  .   .                         100 

Student's  name Date 

Explanation  of  Score  Card. — In  this  score  card  oats  are  judged  en- 
tirely from  the  feeder's  standpoint.  It  is  not  possible  to  make  a  score 
card  by  which  an  oat  could  be  judged  at  the  same  time  from  the  feeder's 
and  the  miller's  standpoint,  and  also  judge  the  grain  for  seed.  Different 
points  would  be  used  in  each  case,  and  different  values  given  them. 


QUESTIONS  173 

Uniformity  in  Color. — Uniformity  in  color  and  size  is  of  only  minor 
importance  to  the  feeder.  Divide  the  sample  according  to  the  color  of  the 
grains.  Let  the  class  having  the  largest  number  determine  the  color.  Cut 
one  point  for  each  two  per  cent  of  other  colors. 

Uniformity  in  Size. — Divide  the  sample  into  two  parts  according  to 
size  of  grain.  Estimate  per  cent  of  small  grains  by  count.  Cut  one  point 
for  each  four  per  cent  of  small  grains. 

Weight  per  Bushel. — The  weight  per  bushel  is  a  very  important  con- 
sideration in  estimating  the  value  of  an  oat  for  feeding  purposes.  A  heavy 
weight  indicates  that  the  grain  was  well  matured  and  filled  out.  In  the 
same  variety  a  heavy  oat  usually  has  a  less  per  cent  of  hull,  and,  conse- 
quently, a  higher  feeding  value  than  a  light  oat.  The  best  oats  should 
weigh  38  pounds  per  bushel.  Cut  one  point  for  every  pound  light  down  to 
32  pounds  per  bushel,  and  two  points  for  every  pound  light  below  this. 

Soundness  and  Dirt. — Sprouted  and  decayed  grains  have  little  more 
value  than  so  much  trash,  and  may  be  regarded  as  such  for  judging  pur- 
poses. Separate  all  unsound  grains  and  dirt,  estimate  the  per  cent  by 
weight,  and  cut  two  points  for  each  one  per  cent.  This  cut  is  not  limited 
to  ten  points,  but  may  be  indefinite. 

Size  of  Grain. — Size  varies  greatly  with  varieties,  but  100  grains  should 
weigh  3  grams  in  heavy  oats.  Cut  one  point  for  every  two-tenths  of  a  gram 
less. 

Must  and  Smut. — If  must  and  smut  are  very  apparent,  the  sample  should 
be  cut  10  points. 

Per  Cent  of  Hull. — The  percentage  of  hull  varies  with  varieties,  the 
locality  in  which  the  oat  is  grown,  and  also  depends  on  how  well  and  per- 
fectly the  grain  was  matured.  In  growth  the  hull  and  bran  develop  first, 
and  the  starch  is  deposited  last.  However,  if  from  any  cause,  such  as  dry 
weather,  poor  soil,  injury  from  insects,  etc.,  the  grain  is  prevented  from 
maturing  perfectly,  the  development  of  the  starch  is  somewhat  curtailed, 
and,  consequently,  the  percentage  of  hull  is  higher.  A  good  oat  may  have 
as  high  as  30  per  cent  hull.  Cut  two  points  for  every  per  cent  of  hull  above 
this. 

Make  a  statement  at  end  of  exercise  as  to  3  most  important  factors  to 
be  considered  in  buying  oats  for  feeding;  also  indicate  the  best  samples 
for  feeding  purposes. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  oats  harvested  greener  than  wheat? 

2.  What  do  you  think  the  best  way  to  care  for  oats  before  threshing? 

3.  What  are  advantages  of  stacking? 

4.  What  conditions  favor  the  spread  of  rust? 

5.  How  is  the  oat  crop  utilized? 

6.  Where  is  the  surplus  oat  crop  produced? 

7.  Explain  treatment  of  oats  in  elevators  to  improve  market  value. 

8.  State  the  principal  market  grades. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
BARLEY 

BARLEY  is  the  fourth  cereal  in  importance  in  the  United  States, 
but  sixth  in  the  world's  crop  of  cereals  (Chapter  I).  In  the  United 
States  it  is  exceeded  by  corn,  wheat,  and  oats,  and  in  the  world  both 
rye  and  rice  surpass  it  in  production.  Europe  alone  produces  about 
three-fourths  of  the  world  crop. 

The  Production  of  Barley. — The  average  barley  crop  of  the 
world  for  the  five-year  period,  1906-1910,  is  shown  in  the  following 
table. 

Production  of  Barley  by  Continents 

Continent  Bushels 

Europe   959,285,600 

North  America 221,680,800 

Asia    99,352,200 

Africa     54,835,200 

Australasia   3,727,800 


World    crop     1,338,881,600 

The  principal  barley-producing  countries  (Fig.  60),  together 
with  the  average  yield  per  acre,  are  shown  in  the  next  table : 

Average  Yields  of  Barley  by  Countries 

Average  yield  Average  yield  per  acre 
per  annum 

Country                              1906-1910,  1890-1899,  1900-1909, 

bushels  bushels  bushels 

Russia    385,880,200  13.3  14.3 

United  States 166,356,000  23.4  25.8 

Germany    147,594,400  29.4  35.3 

Austria- Hungary   ..    143,118,000  21.1  26.3 

Japan 87,413,200 

Eussia  and  the  United  States  lead  in  barley  production,  as  they 
also  do  in  wheat  and  oat  production.  The  average  yield  per  acre 
is  low  in  Eussia,  which  is  also  true  of  her  wheat  and  oat  crop,  but 
the  acreage  is  very  large.  It  will  also  be  noted  that  the  average  yield 
per  acre  is  increasing  in  the  principal  countries. 

Barley  in  the  United  States. — In  the  United  States,  barley  cul- 
ture is  more  concentrated  in  a  few  States  than  any  other  grain.  The 
five  leading  States  produce  about  three-fourths  of  the  crop.  It  takes 
174 


176 


BARLEY 


twelve  States  to  have  as  high  a  percentage  of  the  oat  crops,  and 
fourteen  States  for  the  wheat  and  corn  crops.  Following  is  the 
average  yield  for  five  years,  190G— 1910,  in  the  principal  States: 

Yields  of  Barley  by  States 

State  Bushels 

California    33,782,600 

Minnesota    29,807,800 

South  Dakota 21.238.400 

Wisconsin    19,708,200 

North  Dakota   15,189,200 

Barley  in  common  with  other  cereals  has  shown  a  remarkahle 
shift  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  States   (Fig.  61).     For  ex- 


FIG.   61. — Distribution  of  barley  production  in  United  States.     (From  U.  S.  Census  of  1910.) 

ample,  in  1850  New  York  State  was  the  leading  barley  State,  pro- 
ducing at  that  time  70  per  cent  of  all  the  barley ;  in  1870  it  produced 
25  per  cent;  and  in  1900  only  2.5  per  cent. 

As  barley  is  grown  principally  for  stock  feed  or  market,  it  comes 
in  more  direct  competition  with  the  corn  crop  than  any  other  cereal. 
It  can  not  compete  as  a  crop  with  corn  in  the  corn  belt,  so  we  find  it 
principally  in  the  grain-growing  States  just  out  of  the  corn  belt.  In 
California,  barley  has  been  an  important  grain  crop  from  the  first^ 
as  little  or  no  corn  can  be  produced  in  that  State. 


f 


FIG.  62. — The  upper  photograph  shows  heads  of  six-row,  four-row,  and  two-row  barley. 
The  lower  diagram  in  cross-section  shows  the  position  of  spikelets  in  each  type.  Note 
that  in  the  four-row  barley  the  lateral  rows  overlap,  while  in  the  two-row  they  are  sterile. 

12 


178 


BARLEY 


ORIGIN"  AND  DESCRIPTION   OF  BARLEY  TYPES 

Origin. — In  the  early  history  of  man  barley  was  a  very  impor- 
tant human  food,  and  probably  at  one  time  was  more  important 
as  a  bread  plant  than  wheat.  It  probably  had  its  origin  somewhere 
in  western  Asia.  During  the  last  three  centuries  it  has  declined  as 
a  human  food  and  is  now  used  mostly  as  stock  feed,  and  in  the 
__— .  manufacture  of  beer.  Its  use  for  the 
latter  purpose  is  not  new,  as  the  ancient 
Egyptians  made  it  into  beer. 

Classification  of  Barleys.  —  The 
most  common  classification  of  barleys 
is  based  on  the  number  of  rows  of  grain 
on  the  head  and  their  arrangement  (Figs. 
62  and  63) .  There  are  four  main  groups 
as  follows : 

1.  Six-row    Barley    (Hordeum    hex- 
astichori) . 

2.  Common   Six-row,   lateral   grains 
overlapping,  sometimes  called  four  row 
(Hordeum  vulgare) . 

3.  Two-row    Barley,    slender    heads 
(Hordeum  distichum). 

4.  Two-row     Barley,     broad     heads 
(Hordeum  zeocriton). 

Structure    of    the    Spike. — In    the 

t.   me  zeocriton  is  aistinguisned 

^ort  joints  in  rachis,  and  longer  typical  barley  spike  there  is  a  certain 
similarity.  The  typical  barley  spikelet 

has  but  one  seed  with  two  narrow  empty  glumes  at  the  base.  In  the 
six-row  barleys  three  grains  are  attached  together  at  the  base.  Sets 
of  three  grains  being  on  opposite  sides  of  the  rachis,  gives  a  total 
of  six  grains  around  the  spike. 

In  two-rowed  barley,  only  the  central  grain  of  the  three  is  de- 
veloped, the  two  lateral  being  sterile  or  only  staminate. 

In  the  true  six-row  barley  the  grains  are  spaced  equal  distances 
apart,  making  six  distinct  rows  of  grain  (Fig.  62) .  In  the  other  six- 
rowed  type  there  are  two  distinct  rows  of  single  grains  and  two 
irregular  rows,  giving  a  somewhat  four-rowed  appearance,  and  this  is 


FIG.  63. — Difference  between  zeo- 
criton type  on  left  and  dislichum 
type,  both  six-row  and  two-row,  on 
right.  The  zeocriton  is  distinguished 


TYPES  OF  AWN 


179 


sometimes  called  four-row  barley,  but  examination  will  show  that 
the  two  irregular  rows  are  made  up  of  the  overlapping  lateral  rows 
from  opposite  sides.  Figure  64  gives  a  comparison  of  two  types  of 
barley  grains. 

The  Hulless  Barleys. — In  ordinary  barley  the  outer  husk  is 
tightly  attached  to  the  kernel,  but  there  are  forms  belonging  to  all 


FIG.  64. 


FIG.  65. 


FIG.  64. — Comparison  of  two-row  and  six-row  barley  grains.  Upper  figures  two-row 
barley  grains  and  lower  figures  six-row  barley  grains.  Note  that  the  two-row  grains  are 
larger  and  the  crease  is  straight,  while  in  the  six-row  the  two  lateral  grains  are  twisted. 

FIG.  65. — Kernels  of  hulless  barley. 

the  four  main  groups  in  which  the  kernels  are  free  from  the  hull 
(Fig.  65). 

Types  of  Awn. — Most  of  the  cultivated  barleys  have  a  long  stout 
awn,  but  there  are  at  least  four  variations : 

1.  Ordinary  long  stout  awns. 

2.  Awns  deciduous,  i.e.,  drop  o'ff  as  the  grain  ripens. 

3.  Awnless  or  awn  pointed. 

4.  Hooded  or  trifurcate  tips  (Fig.  66). 


180 


BARLEY 


These  various  types  are  found  in  all  the  barley  groups  or  classes. 

Color  of  Grain. — Ordinary  cultivated  barleys  have  a  whitish 
grain,  but  in  some  the  husk  may  be  black  or  bluish.  In  others  the 
grain  is  either  white,  green,  purple,  or  black.  There  seems  to  be  no 
important  significance  attached  to  color,  except  the  trade  prefers  the 
white  barleys. 

Winter  and  Spring  Barleys. — There  are  no  winter  barleys  that 
can  withstand  the  severe  winter  conditions  of  winter  wheat  or  winter 


\ 


FIG.  66. — On  left,  the  hooded  or  trifurcate  type,  and  awned  barley  on  right. 

rye.  Neither  do  they  have  a  long,  fixed,  dormant  period  as  winter 
wheat  and  rye,  but  in  most  cases  may  be  sown  in  early  spring  as 
well  as  fall.  There  are  quite  a  number  of  varieties  of  six-row  barley, 
of  both  the  true  six-row  and  the  common  six-row,  sufficiently  hardy 
to  be  sown  in  the  fall  in  mild  climates.  Winter  barleys  are  grown 
about  as  far  north  as  Tennessee,  but  north  of  the  Ohio  River  they 
usually  winter-kill  and  are  too  uncertain  for  general  culture. 

Types  in  Cultivation. — In  considering  the  value  of  the  types, 
neither  the  true  six-row  (No.  1)  nor  the  broad  two-row  (No.  4)  is 


SIX-HOW  BARLEYS  181 

'cultivated  extensively.  They  both  yield  well,  have  a  very  stiff  and 
short  straw,  but  the  grain  is  coarse  and  not  considered  good  malting 
barley. 

The  bulk  of  the  crop  is  made  up  of  common  six-row  (No.  2) 
or  the  long  slender  head  type  of  two-row  (No.  3),  and  ordinarily 
when  two-row  and  six-row  barleys  are  spoken  of  these  are  the  ones 
referred  to. 

Distribution  of  Types. — In  general,  common  six-row  barley  is 
adapted  better  to  a  warmer  climate  and  lower  elevation  than  the  two- 
row,  while  at  higher  elevations  and  more  northern  climate  the  two- 
row  is  equal  or  superior.  Hence,  we  find  six-row  grown  through  the 
corn  belt  and  the  Wisconsin-Minnesota  territory.  But  in  the  high 
elevations  of  Montana  and  northern  climate  of  Canada  much  two- 
row  is  grown.  In  the  Dakotas  both  types  are  grown,  but  the  two-row 
is  mostly  in  the  western  half  at  high  elevation. 

The  white  and  black  hulless  barleys  have  also  found  a  place  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  dry  plains  lying  east  of  the  Eocky  Moun- 
tains. They  mature  in  a  short  season  and  produce  grain  on  a  low 
rainfall,  if  the  climate  is  not  too  hot. 

Varieties  in  Use. — A  large  proportion  of  the  barley  grown  in 
this  country  is  known  as  "  common  "  six-row  barley,  the  origin  of 
which  is  not  known,  but  appears  to  be  barley  principally  grown  in 
this  country  for  fifty  or  sixty  years.  It  probably  originated  from 
several  sources,  and  is  more  or  less  mixed.  Most  of  the  named  varie- 
ties are  of  more  recent  introduction  and  may  be  briefly  described  as 
follows  (Fig.  67)  : 

Six-row  Barleys. — Manchuria,  said  to  be  originally  from  China, 
but  brought  to  Wisconsin  from  Germany. 

Oderbrucker,  introduced  by  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College 
from  Germany.  This  variety  and  Manchuria  are  similar  and  are 
the  best  barleys  for  the  district,  Minnesota  and  eastward  and  south  to 
the  Ohio  River. 

Scotch  is  also  a  six-row  barley  introduced  somewhat  earlier  and 
extensively  grown,  but  is  now  superseded  by  the  above  varieties. 

Bay  Brewing  is  an  important  California  variety  that  has  long 
had  a  good  reputation  for  fine  quality. 


182  BARLEY 

Hulless  Six-row. — The  hulless  varieties  in  cultivation  are  all 
six-row,  although  there -are  two-row  sorts. 


Fia.  67. — Types  of  six-row  barley.    Left  to  right,  (1)  Manchuria,  (2)  black  hulless,  awned, 
and  (3)   awnless  white  hulless. 

Black  Hulless,  with  purple  to  black  seeds. 

Guy  Mayle,  or  Himalaya,  with  blue  to  green  seeds. 

"White  Hulless  (Success  is  a  variety),  with  light  amber  seeds. 


TWO-ROW  BARLEYS  183 

Two-row  Barleys  (Fig.  68). — Chevalier,  best  known  of  two- 
row  barleys,  with  long  slender  drooping  heads. 


Fia.  68. — Types  of  two-row  barleys.     Left  to  right,  bearded  distichum  type,  and  deciduous 
distichum  type.     On  right  is  zeocriton  type. 

Hanna,  a  similar  but  somewhat  earlier  variety. 
Hannchen,  similar  to  above. 
Swan  Neck,  similar  to  above. 


184 


BARLEY 


Comparative  Quality. — Barley  grains  (Fig.  69)  are  classed  as 
"  mealy  "  and  "  hard/5  very  much  as  the  soft  and  hard  wheats.  As 
in  wheat,  the  mealy  grains  are  low  in  protein,  having  ordinarily  eight 
to  ten  per  cent,  while  the  hard  grains  may  run  twelve  to  fourteen 
per  cent.  In  Europe  the  brewers  want  the  mealy  barleys  and  give  a 
higher  price  for  them,  but  in  America  there  is  little  preference  on  the 
market. 

In  general  the  two-rowed  barleys  are  larger  in  grain  and  softer 
than  six-rowed  (Fig.  70),  and  are  grown  in  preference  in  the  barley 


FIG.  69. — Four  types  of  hulless  barley  kernels. 

regions  of  Europe,  where  barley  is  grown  principally  for  malting. 
In  America  it  is  largely  a  question  of  yield  that  determines  the  type 
grown. 

Quality  in  Barley. — Quality  in  barley  must  be  judged  largely  by 
its  adaptation  to  malting,  as  good  malting  barley  usually  sells  from 
ten  to  fifteen  cents  per  bushel  higher  than  feed  barley.  Malting  is 
judged  largely  by  the  following  three  factors : 

1.  Germination. — In  the  manufacture  of  malt  the  barley  is  first 
germinated  by  keeping  moist  in  a  warm  room.  The  barley  grains 


QUALITY  IN  BARLEY  185 

should  all  germinate  quickly  and  uniformly — at  least  95  per  cent 
germination  in  72  hours. 

To  secure  this  quality  the  barley  should:  (1)  ripen  uniformly 
in  all  parts  of  the  field,  as  green  and  ripe  harvested  barley  will  not 
germinate  alike;  (2)  the  barley  should  be  well  ripened;  (3)  should 
be  well  protected  from  weather  after  harvest,  as  continued  dampness, 
in  a  wet  bundle,  for  even  one  or  two  days,  will  start  germinating 
process.  If  a  part  of  the  grain  be  exposed,  as  the  cap  sheaves  for 


FIG.  70. — Comparison  of  spikelets  of  six-row  (three  at  a  node)  and  two-row{one  at  a  node, 
and  two  sterile)  barleys. 

example,  and  the  rest  be  well  protected,  the  grain  will  no  longer  be 
uniform  in  quality. 

2.  Color  is  an  indication  of  germinating  quality.     A  natural 
bright  straw  color  is  desired,  but  if  any  considerable  percentage  of 
grains  are  blackened  or  darkened,  it  indicates  exposure  in  the  field. 
Overheating  in  the  stack  is  indicated  by  a  dark-brown  color  at  the 
germ  end,  due  probably  to  oil  coming  from  the  germ. 

3.  Per  Cent  of  Hull. — In  barleys  the  per  cent  of  hull  varies  from 
eight  to  twenty  per  cent,  with  twelve  or  fifteen  per  cent  as  an  average. 


186  BARLEY 

In  malting  the  hulled  barleys  are  preferred  to  hulless,  as  the  hull 
protects  against  fungus  while  malting  and  also  serves  as  a  filter 
when  extracting.  The  hull,  however,  is  dead  loss,  as  it  is  mostly 
fiber,  and  therefore  a  low  per  cent  is  desirable. 

If  the  barley  is  plump  a  thin  hull  is  indicated,  by  being  wrinkled 
across  the  back  and  also  by  absence  of  the  two  strong  veins,  while  in 
a  thick  coarse  hull  the  two  veins  are  quite  prominent. 

4.  Close  Threshing. — In  good  barley  the  awn  should  not  be 
broken  so  close  that  the  end  of  the  kernel  is  exposed,  but  on  a  good 
percentage  of  grains  a  stub  of  awn  one-fourth  inch  long  is  regarded 
as  desirable.  This  can  be  regulated  by  adjustment  of  the  threshing 
machine,  and  should  be  given  attention  when  barley  is  being  threshed 
for  market. 

Feed  Barley. — The  term  "  feed  barley  "  is  given  on  the  market 
to  barley  that  for  any  reason  is  not  suitable  for  malting.  In  some 
cases  only  the  germinating  quality  is  injured,  and  the  grain  is  of 
good  weight,  but  usually  feed  barley  is  rather  light  in  weight,  broken 
and  chaffy. 

EXERCISES 

Barley  differs  from  wheat  and  rye  in  having  three  flowers  at  a  joint 
of  the  rachis,  and  but  one  grain  per  spikelet. 

In  the  six-row  barleys  all  three  flowers  are  fertile  and  bear  grains. 

In  the  two-row  barleys  the  lateral  flowers  are  sterile. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  empty  glumes  are  very  narrow  in  barley, 
while  in  wheat  and  oats  they  are  broad,  enclosing  the  flower. 

Read  carefully  text  on  classification  of  barleys. 

Barley  Types. — 1.  Materials. — Have  at  hand  samples  of  the  four  prin- 
cipal barley  topes,  as  described  in  Chapter  XXIII,  and,  in  addition,  hulless 
barleys  of  bwh  the  awnless  and  hooded  types. 

2.  Lay  out  heads  of  the  types  in  order. 

Lay  brace  of  spikelets  from  each  type  just  below  the  respective  type. 

3.  Compare  hexastichon  and  vulgare. 
Are  all  three  grains  in  a  brace  same  size? 
Are  any  of  the  grains  twisted? 

Compare  the  shape  of  grain,  and  also  the  prominence  of  the  two  nerves 
on  back. 

Can  you  identify  threshed  samples  of  the  two  kinds? 

4.  See  if  you  can  find  marks  for  identifying  the  two-rowed  types  in 
threshed  grain. 

Can  you  tell  the  threshed  grain  of  the  two-rowed  and  six- rowed  apart  1 

5.  Drawings. — Make  drawings    (x3)    as  follows: 

(a)   Spikelet  of  each  type  on  short  section  of  rachis. 

(&)   Side  view  (groove  side)  of  short  section  of  each  spike. 


EXERCISES  187 

(c)   Ventral  view  (crease  side)   of  one  grain  of  two-rowed  barley,  and 
three  grains  from  same  brace  of  common  six-row   (vulgare). 

6.  Dissect  a  spikelet  of  hulless  and  draw  parts  in  relative  position. 

7.  Threshed   grain   of   white   hulless  barley   and   macaroni   wheat   are 
sometimes  confused.     Compare  samples. 

8.  Compare  threshed  oats  and  common  barley. 

Can  you  remove  hull  as  easily  in  one  case  as  the  other? 
Which  has  higher  per  cent  of  hull? 

Descriptive  Terms  for  Barley 

A.  Spike: 

1.  Rows — six,   two. 

2.  Type — slender,  compact. 

3.  Cross-section — C  rank,  4  rank,  2  rank. 

4.  Awns — awns  persistent,  awns  deciduous,  awnless,  hooded. 

B.  Spikelet: 

5.  Number  fertile. 

6.  Number  sterile. 

7.  Color. 

C.  Grain: 

8.  Glumes — free,  adhering. 

9.  Color  of  kernel. 

10.  Shape — long,  medium,  short. 

11.  Texture — starchy,    dull,    vitreous. 

Outline  for  Describing  Barleys 


Name  of  sample 


A.  Spike: 

1.  Rows      

2.  Type    

3.  Cross-section    . 

4.  Awns   

B.  Spikelet: 

5.  Fertile     

6.  Sterile 

7.  Color    

(7.  Grains: 

8.  Glumes    

9.  Color  of  kernel 

10.  Shape    

11.  Texture  . 


Examining  the  Quality  of  Threshed  Barleys. — Good  malting  barley 
is  judged  by  three  principal  characters:  (1)  It  should  be  of  a  uniform 
bright  color.  (2)  Should  be  of  a  unifoim  texture.  (3)  Should  be  fairly 
plump  and  well  matured.  The  reasons  are  explained  in  the  text. 

For  making  a  comparative  examination  of  a  number  of  barley  samples, 
the  following  outline  may  be  used: 


188  BARLEY 

Report  on  Barley  Samples 
Name  of  sample 


Color: 

Bright    

Discolored    .  . 
Texture : 

Starchy    

Dull    

Vitreous    

Maturity : 

Large,  plump 

Medium    

Shrunken  . 


QUESTIONS 

1.  How  important  is  the  barley  crop? 

2.  Do  the  same  countries  that  lead  in  barley  production  also  lead  in  other 

cereals  ? 

3.  Which  countries  lead  in  yield  per  acre  of  barley?     Of  other  cereals? 

4.  How   does    the    barley-growing   region    in    the   United    States    compare 

with  the  region  for  other  cereals? 

5.  Name  the  principal  types  of  barley. 

6.  Describe    the    difference    between    a    six-row,    four-row,    and    two-row 

barley. 

7.  Describe  (1)  hulled  and  hulless  barleys;    (2)   kinds  of  awns;    (3)   color 

of  grain. 

8.  How  does  the  range  of  winter  barleys  compare  with  that  of  winter 

wheat;   winter  oats;   winter  rye? 

9.  What  types  of  barley  are  commonly  cultivated? 

10.  Give  the  distribution  of  six-row,  two-row,  and  hulless  barleys. 

11.  What  is  the  difference  in  appearance  of  grain  in  two-row  and  six-row 

barleys  ? 

12.  Name  the  qualities  of  a  good  malting  barley. 

13.  Compare  per  cent  of  hull  in  barley  and  oats. 

14.  How  is  thick  hull  told  by  appearance? 


CHAPTER  XXIY 
RYE 

RYE  is  the  fifth  cereal  in  importance  in  the  world  and  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  exceeded  in  the  world  by  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and 
rice,  and  in  the  United  States  the  rice  is  replaced  by  barley.  Rye  is 
cultivated  in  much  the  same  way  as  wheat  and  is  used  for  similar 
purposes,  and  in  many  places  may  be  considered  to  be  a  competing 
crop  with  wheat.  It  will  grow  on  poorer  soils  than  wheat  and  in 
colder  climates,  and  so  has  a  distinct  advantage  in  many  countries. 

Rye  Production. — About  nine-tenths  of  the  rye  crop  is  pro- 
duced in  Europe  (Fig.  71) .  Rye  is  only  a  minor  crop  in  other  parts 
of  the  world. 

Production  of  Rye 

Production,  5-year  average, 
Continent  1906-1910,  bushels 

Europe    1,536,279,600 

North    America     40,162,400 

Asia   25,809,600 

Australasia    189,600 


Total    1,602,441,200 

While  the  rye  crop  of  the  world  is  only  one-third  that  of  wheat, 
yet  in  Europe  the  two  crops  are  almost  of  equal  importance,  and  in  at 
least  two  countries,  Russia  and  Germany,  rye  far  outranks  wheat. 

Production  of  Rye  and  Wheat  in  Russia  and  Germany,  Average  1906—1910 

Rye,  bushels  Wheat,  bushels 

Russia    742,482,600  557,757,800 

Germany    409,271,800  138,184,600 

In  the  United  States,  four  States,  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, and  New  York,  produce  about  three-fifths  of  the  rye  crop. 

Origin  and  History. — While  the  cultivated  species  of  rye  are 
annuals,  it  is  thought  to  have  originated  from  a  wild  perennial  form 
found  growing  in  South  Europe  to  Central  Asia. 

The  fact  that  pasturing  off  rye  closely  for  a  season  may  cause  it  to 
live  over  a  second  winter,  shows  it  to  have  a  tendency  toward  a 
perennial  form.  No  other  cereals  appear  to  show  such  a  tendency. 

189 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  RYE 


191 


Rye  was  probably  not  cultivated  by 
ancient  peoples  previous  to  the  Christian 
era,  as  wheat  and  barley  were.  It  appears 
to  have  come  into  cultivation  in  the  north 
half  of  Europe,  somewhat  previous  to 
the  Christian  era,  and  its  culture  since 
then  has  remained  in  that  region. 

Description  of  the  Plant. — The  rye 
plant  is  similar  in  general  appearance  to 
wheat,  but  will  average  ten  to  fifteen 
inches  taller.  '  The  head  (Fig.  72)  is 
longer  and  more  slender,  with  generally 
two  flowers  to  a  spikelet,  giving  a  quite 
uniform  four-ranked  head  instead  of 
six-ranked.  Rye  appears  to  be  quite 
generally  cross  fertilized  instead  of  self- 
fertilized  as  wheat  and  barley.  Rye 
straw  is  much  tougher  and  more  flexible 
than  other  straws,  thus  adapting  itself  to 
many  uses  in  the  arts,  such  as  packing  or 
weaving  into  matting. 

The  Rye  Grain. — The  structure  and 
composition  of  the  rye  grain  is  similar 
to  wheat,  although  the  flour  made  from 
rye  is  more  starchy  than  from  wheat. 
The  rye  grain  contains  gluten,  and  is 
therefore  adapted  to  the  making  of  light 
bread,  a  quality  also  of  wheat  but  not 
found  in  any  other  cereal. 

Classification  of  Rye. — The  varie- 
ties of  rye  are  very  few  compared  with 
other  cultivated  cereals.  The  heads  are 
practically  all  of  one  type,  though  the 
color  of  grain  varies  somewhat.  Ryes  are 
often  designated  as  black,  white,  or 
yellow,  according  to  color  of  grain.  No  rye  has  black  grains,  but 
rather  dark  brown  or  purplish,  and  makes  a  dark  flour,  the  bread 


FIG.  72.— Rye. 


from  which  is  often  called  black  bread  in  contrast  with  the  white 
bread  of  wheat.  So-called  white  rye  is  only  lighter,  but  does  not 
make  so  white  a  bread  as  wheat. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  winter  rye  (sown  in  the  fall)  and 
corresponding  varieties  of  spring  rye.  Spring  rye  is  grown  some  in 
Europe,  but  only  rarely  in  the  United  States. 

Climate  for  Rye. — Winter  rye  is  much  hardier  than  wheat,  and 
can  be  cultivated  in  regions  having  colder  winters  or  drier  and  more 
unfavorable  winter  weather.  While  it  will  grow  throughout  the 
temperate  zone,  it  seems  naturally  adapted  to  northern  climates. 

Soils  for  Rye. — While  it  responds  to  good  soils,  yet  rye  is  such 
a  vigorous  plant  that  it  will  produce  a  crop  on  poorer  soils,  or  with 
less  preparation  of  the  soil  than  other  cereals.  It  is  also  well 
adapted  to  light  or  sandy  soils,  and  on  such  soils  is  often  grown  to 
plow  under  as  a  green  manure  crop. 

Rye  in  Rotations. — Owing  to  its  adaptation  to  poor  or  sandy 
soils,  rye  becomes  a  very  important  crop  in  the  building  up  of  such 
soils.  If  sown  in  the  fall,  it  makes  a  quick  growth  the  following 
spring  and  may  be  plowed  under  in  May  in  time  to  plant  some  other 
crop,  as  corn,  potatoes,  or  buckwheat.  It  is  used  in  this  way  on  the 
sandy  potato  and  truck  soils  of  the  Atlantic  Coast.  A  crop  of  pota- 
toes or  buckwheat  can  be  harvested  each  year  and  a  crop  of  rye  can 
be  plowed  under  for  manure. 

When  rye  follows  corn  it  is  often  sown  in  the  standing  corn  at  the 
last  cultivation,  or  is  drilled  in  later  with  a  narrow  drill.  When  rye 
follows  potatoes  it  may  be  sown  while  the  potatoes  are  being  dug, 
and  the  soil  leveled  afterward,  or  the  land  is  prepared  after  digging 
and  the  rye  is  drilled  in.  The  winter  rye  prevents  erosion,  and 
also  prevents  the  leaching  of  any  soluble  fertilizer  or  plant-food  in 
the  soil. 

When  rye  and  buckwheat  are  alternated,  the  rye  may  be  sown 
with  the  buckwheat  about  July  first,  sowing  the  buckwheat  rather 
thin  (two  or  three  pecks  per  acre).  The  buckwheat  is  harvested  for 
grain,  while  the  young  rye  is  allowed  to  grow  and  is  plowed  down  the 
following  summer.  This  may  be  repeated  year  after  year,  gradually 
improving  the  soil  by  the  large  addition  of  organic  matter. 


THRESHING  RYE  193 

Rye  and  Vetch. — Winter  or  hairy  vetch  is  often  grown  with  rye. 
The  vetch  is  a  legume,  adding  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  and  is  well 
adapted  to  sandy  land.  The  mixture  may  be  plowed  under  as  a 
green  manure  or,  if  allowed  to  ripen,  harvested  together.  After 
threshing,  the  rye  and  vetch  seeds  are  separated  by  machines  espe- 
cially adapted  for  this  purpose.  This  is  also  a  good  way  of  growing 
vetch  for  seed. 

Cultural  Methods. — While  rye  responds  to  good  preparation,  as 
other  crops,  yet  it  is  so  hardy  and  vigorous  that  a  stand  and  crop 
may  be  secured  under  quite  unfavorable  conditions. 

The  rate  of  sowing  varies  from  one  to  three  bushels  per  acre: 
the  less  amount  when  conditions  are  favorable  and  long  coarse 
straw  is  desired,  but  more  seed  is  used  with  less  favorable  conditions 
and  when  the  rye  is  to  be  used  as  a  green  manure  crop. 

The  time  of  sowing  rye  may  extend  over  a  period  of  three  months. 
About  September  fifteenth  would  be  most  favorable  in  the  corn  belt, 
but  it  may  be  sown  early  in  August  and  pastured  off,  if  the  growth  is 
too  rank.  Rye  is  often  sown  in  July  in  standing  corn  at  the  last 
cultivation,  in  which  case  it  makes  only  a  light  growth  until  the  corn 
is  ripe  or  harvested.  In  some  cases  rye  is  purposely  sown  so  late 
that  it  will  only  barely  sprout  before  freezing  weather,  in  which  case 
it  should  be  sown  rather  thickly. 

Harvesting  Rye. — When  rye  is  grown  for  grain  it  is  allowed  to 
become  quite  ripe,  but,  in  some  regions,  rye  is  grown  quite  as  much 
for  the  straw  as  for  the  grain.  When  the  rye  straw  is  -to  be  used  in 
the  padding  of  horse  collars  or  for  the  manufacture  of  matting,  it  is 
usually  cut  while  quite  green,  bound  in  small  bundles  and  carefully 
cured.  As  soon  as  dry  in  the  shock  the  bundles  should  be  stacked  in 
the  barn,  or  under  a  shed,  where  it  will  go  through  the  "  sweat "  or 
natural  heating  process.  This  leaves  the  straw  with  a  good  color 
and  tougher. 

Threshing  Rye. — When  the  straw  is  to  be  sold  it  is  usually  kept 
straight.  To  do  this,  only  the  heads  are  thrust  into  the  threshing 
machine,  and  the  bundle  withdrawn  and  thrown  aside.  There  are 
also  special  machines  for  threshing  rye,  in  which  the  bundle  is  fed 
in  sideways,  but  only  the  heads  are  threshed,  the  straw  passing 
13 


194  RYE 

through  the  machine  sideways  and  bound  again  in  bundles  at  the 
rear  end. 

iMarket  for  Rye  Straw. — In  the  large  cities  there  is  a  large  de- 
mand for  straight  rye  straw.  Its  most  extensive  use  is  in  the  livery 
stables  to  be  used  as  bedding.  The  tough  nature  of  the  straw  permits 
it  to  be  dried  and  used  several  times.  In  the  New  York  market 
straight  rye  straw  is  usually  quoted  about  as  high  as  No.  2  timothy 
hay.  For  illustration,  the  following  are  New  York  quotations  at 
different  times : 

Rye  Straiv  Compared  with  Timothy 

Jan.  11,  1913  Dec.  6,  1913 

Dollars  Dollars 

Timothy  No.  1 21.00  @  22.00  20.50  @  21.50 

Timothy  No.  2   ...    17.00  @   19.00  18.00  @   19.00 

Timothy  No.  3   ...    15.00  @  16.00  15.00  @   17.00 

Rye  straw   18.50  @   18.50  15.00  @   18.00 

The  price  of  rye  straw  is  one  reason  why  a  large  acreage  of  rye  is 
raised  in  New  York  State  and  Pennsylvania,  as  the  straw  is  worth 
about  as  much  as  the  grain,  making  it  a  comparatively  profitable 
grain  crop. 

Eye  straw  is  also  used  wherever  a  coarse  straw  packing  is  needed 
and  in  upholstering.  Coarse  matting  is  also  made,  but  where  rye 
straw  is  used  in  the  making  of  fine  matting,  as  straw  hats,  the  straw 
is  especially  grown,  cut  very  green,  cured  with  great  care,  and 
bleached. 

World's  Rye  Crop  and  Price  of  Wheat. — While  the  rye  crop  in 
the  United  States  is  small,  yet  the  price  of  American  "wheat  is  con- 
siderably influenced  by  the  world's  rye  crop.  As  mentioned  hereto- 
fore, rye  is  almost  as  important  as  wheat  in  Europe  as  a  bread  crop. 
As  Europe  is  our  principal  market  for  wheat,  a  large  European  rye 
crop  will  cut  down  the  demand  for  our  wheat.  In  estimating  the 
probable  European  demand  for  wheat,  the  rye  crop  is  always  counted 
in  with  the  wheat. 

Insect  Enemies  and  Diseases. — Eye  is  less  affected  by  diseases 
and  insects  than  the  other  small  grain  crops.  There  are  no  im- 
portant insect  enemies  peculiar  to  the  rye  crop,  although  all  the  wheat 
insects  attack  rye  also,  but  are  usually  less  injurious. 

Rye  is  injured  by  rust  perhaps  as  much  as  oats  or  wheat,  but  is 


QUESTIONS  195 

aever  injured  by  smut.  It  has  one  peculiar  disease  known  as  ergot. 
The  affected  grains  grow  to  three  or  four  times  normal  size  and  turn 
black,  being  filled  with  black  spores.  It  only  rarely  does  serious 
injury.  Ergot  has  a  medicinal  value,  but  it  is  dangerous  to  feed  rye 
containing  ergot  to  farm  animals. 

EXERCISE 

Moisture  in  Grain. — Samples  of  rye  and  other  grains  kept  under  dif- 
ferent conditions  should  be  studied  for  moisture  content  as  described  in  the 
exercise  at  the  close  of  Chapter  II.  Secure  samples  from  open  bins,  closed 
bins,  newly  threshed  from  stacks  or  shocks. 

What  does  the  exercise  demonstrate  as  to  best  conditions  of  storage! 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  is  rye   cultivated? 

2.  Where  is  it  more  important  than  wheat? 

3.  Where  cultivated  in  the  United  States? 

4.  Name  the  distinguishing  characters  of  the  rye  plant. 

5.  Why  can  light  bread  be  made  from  rye  or  wheat? 

6.  Give  the  types  of  rye. 

7.  What  are  the  best  climate  and  soil  for  rye? 

8.  Describe  some  rotations  where  rye  is  found  useful. 

9.  Why  are  rye  and  vetch  good  crops  for  green  manure? 

10.  Name  the  season  when  rye  may  be  sown. 

11.  Explain  curing  of  rye  straw. 

12.  Why  is  rye  straw  so  valuable? 

13.  How  important  is  rye  as  a  bread  crop? 


CHAPTER  XXV 
BUCKWHEAT 

BUCKWHEAT  is  a  crop  comparatively  small  in  acreage  and  pro- 
duction in  the  United  States,  occupying  less  than  one  million  acres 
annually.  Less  than  four  farmers  out  of  every  100  report  buck- 
wheat as  grown,  while  50  farmers  report  wheat,  and  80  farmers 
report  corn.  About  four  acres  of  buckwheat  are  grown  on  each  farm 
reporting,  while  twenty-five  acres  of  common  wheat  and  twenty 
acres  of  corn  is  the  average. 

Buckwheat  Production. — There  is  no  available  information 
regarding  the  world's  crop  of  buckwheat,  but  it  is  cultivated  in 
Japan,  North  Asia,  and  North  Europe.  In  the  United  States  buck- 
wheat production  reached  its  height  in  the  sixties,  then  rapidly 
declined  in  the  seventies,  but  has  again  gradually  increased  since, 
though  it  has  not  reached  the  production  of  1866. 

While  the  production  of  all  other  cereals  has  very  largely  shifted 
from  the  eastern  States  to  the  Middle  West  since  1850,  buckwheat 
is  the  one  cereal  that  has  remained  principally  in  the  East  (Fig.  73). 
For  50  years  New  York  has  been  the  leading  buckwheat  State,  with 
Pennsylvania  a  close  second.  These  two  states  produce  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  buckwheat  crop.  Michigan,  Maine,  and  West  Virginia 
follow  in  the  order  named. 

Buckwheat  Production,  5-Year  Average,  1906-1910 

Average  yield 

Production,  per  acre, 

Bushels  Bushels 

United  States    15,896,600  19.6 

New  York 6,302,000  21.0 

Pennsylvania   4,971,000  19.0 

Michigan     814,000  14.3 

Maine    607,000  29.3 

W.  Virginia  451,000  20.0 

Virginia    351,000  16.9 

The  average  price  per  bushel  is  about  53  cents. 
Origin,  and  History. — Buckwheat  appears  to  have  originated 
from  certain  wild  forms  found  in  Central  Asia.     It  was  not  culti- 
196 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PLANT 


197 


vated  in  ancient  times,,  and  has  come  into  cultivation  mostly  since 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  Its  present  distribution  is  prin- 
cipally in  the  northern  half  of  Asia  and  Europe,  and  northeastern 
United  States.  Canada  also  grows  a  small  acreage.  It  is  grown 
principally  for  human  food. 

Relationships.— Buckwheat  belongs  to  a  botanical  family  char- 
acterized by  angular  three-sided  seeds,  including  the  common  sorrels, 
sour  docks.,  and  smartweed.  Most  of  this  group  will  flourish  on  wet 
or  sour  soils,  better  than  most  vegetation.  The  buckwheat  seed  is 


FIG.  73.— Distribution  of  buckwheat  in  United  States.    (U.  S.  Census,  1910.) 

three  angled  like  a  beech  nut,  and  the  German  name,  luchweizen^  and 
the  Latin  name,  Fagopyrum,  both  mean  "beech  wheat/'  The 
German  name  has  come  to  be  "  buckwheat "  in  English. 

Description  of  Plant. — Buckwheat,  perhaps,  should  not  be 
called  a  true  cereal,  since  it  is  not  a  grass  (p.  2),  but  quite  a  dif- 
ferent type  of  plant.  Instead  of  a  mass  of  fine  fibrous  roots,  as  in 
grasses,  buckwheat  has  a  strong  central  tap-root,  with  rather  few 
branches.  Neither  does  buckwheat  produce  tillers  from  the  base,  but 
strong  lateral  branches  are  thrown  out  at  each  node.  When  planted 
thin  the  lower  branches  are  partly  prostrate,  but  under  ordinary  field 
conditions  the  branching  is  much  reduced  and  the  plants  stand  quite 


198  BUCKWHEAT 

erect.     The  leaves  are  triangular  and  two  or  three  inches  broad. 
The  stem  varies  in  color  from  green  to  purple. 

The  flowers  on  ordinary  buckwheat  are  small,  but  borne  in  com- 
pact masses  at  the  end  of  small  branches.  However,  in  one  species, 
the  so-called  India-wheat,  the  flower  clusters  are  small  and  more 
scattered  at  the  nodes  along  the  principal  stems.  The  flowers  are 
of  two  types,  one  with  long  stamens  and  short  styles,  and  the  other 
with  short  stamens  and  long  styles.  Each  plant  produces  only  one 
type,  but  when  the  seed  from  either  kind  of  plant  is  sown,  both  forms 
are  produced  in  about  equal  numbers.  This  peculiar  arrangement 
may  assist  in  cross-fertilization. 

The  Buckwheat  Grain. — The  grain  varies  in  color  from  silver- 
grey  to  brown  or  black.  The  outer  cover  or  hull  corresponds  to  the 
outer  bran  of  wheat  or  corn,  but  differs  in  being  much  thicker  and  free 
from  the  starchy  endosperm.  The  hull  readily  splits  along  the 
edges,  and  some  care  must  be  observed  in  threshing  dry  buckwheat 
not  to  thus  hull  too  many  of  the  grains.  Old  seed  in  dry  storage  will 
sometimes  hull  more  or  less.  The  endosperm  is?  soft  rather  than 
hard,  as  in  corn  or  wheat.  The  legal  weight  of  buckwheat  is 
ordinarily  48  pounds  per  bushel,  though  in  different  States  it  varies 
from  40  to  56  pounds. 

In  composition,  the  buckwheat  endosperm  is  more  starchy  than 
wheat  or  corn,  and  is  also  low  in  fat  content.  In  milling,  the  flour 
produced  is  very  low  in  protein  (six  to  seven  per  cent)  and  fat,  but 
the  middlings,  which  contain  the  germ,  are  distinguished  by  ex- 
tremely high  protein  and  fat  content.  The  middlings  are  highly 
valued  as  stock  feed. 

The   following   data   compiled   by   Hunt  give    average   com- 
position 1 : 

Essential  Ingredients  of  Buckwheat  and  Its  Products 

Grain  Flour  Middlings  Hulls 


Water    

,    12.6 

14.6 

12.7 

10.1 

Ash           

.     2.0 

1.0 

5.1 

2.0 

Protein                     .... 

.    10.0 

6.9 

28.1 

4.6 

Crude  fiber    

.     8.7 

0.3 

4.2 

44.7 

Nitrogen-free  extract   , 
Fat                

64.5 
.      2.2 

75.8 
1.4 

42.2 

7.7 

37.7 
0.9 

1  Hunt,  T.  F. :    Cereals  in  America,  p.  402. 


COMMON  BUCKWHEAT 

Classification. — There  are  three  species  of  buckwheat  in  cultiva- 
tion (Fig.  74)  : 

1.  Common  buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentum). 

2.  Tartary  buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  Tart aricum). 

3.  Notch-seeded  buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  emarginatum) . 

The  three  types  are  easily  distinguished  by  the  shape  of  grain. 
In  the  common  buckwheat  the  grains  are  about  as  broad  as  long  and 
smooth.  The  Tartary  seed  is  longer  than  broad  in  shape,  the  edges 
wavy  and  seed  slightly  corrugated.  The  notch-seeded  buckwheat  has 
extended  wings  on  the  margins,  giving  the  seed  the  appearance  of 
being  larger  than  the  two  above,  though  in  reality  it  is  not. 


FIG.  74. — Types  of  buckwheat  grain.     From  left,  Tartary,  Silver  Hull,  Gray  and  Japanese 

buckwheats. 

Common  Buckwheat. — Common  buckwheat  may  be  divided 
into  three  varieties,  known  as  Silver  Hull,  Gray,  and  Japanese.  Sil- 
ver Hull  seed  is  lightest  in  color  while  the  plant  and  seed  are  smallest 
in  size.  The  Japanese  seed  is  brown  to  black  in  color,  and  both  seed 
and  plant  largest  in  size.  The  Gray  is  intermediate  in  characters. 
Ordinarily  Silver  Hull  is  plumper,  smoother,  and  heavier  in  weight 
per  bushel  than  the  other  two. 

In  yield  per  acre,  the  Japanese  usually  exceeds  the  Silver  Hull 
or  Gray,  and  at  present  is  most  extensively  grown.  It  is  not  un- 
common for  growers  to  mix  the  Silver  Hull  and  Japanese,  as  it  is 
thought,  in  case  of  hot,  dry  weather,  the  taller  Japanese  will  protect 
the  blossoms  of  the  smaller  variety  and  insure  against  blasting  of 
the  flowers. 


200  BUCKWHEAT 

Tartary  Buckwheat. — This  is  commonly  called  India  wheat. 
It  is  adapted  to  high  and  cool  latitudes,  especially  mountainous  dis- 
tricts. It  fs  cultivated  some  in  Maine,  eastern  Canada,  and  the 
mountain  districts  of  New  York. 

Notch-seeded  buckwheat  is  not  cultivated  in  North  America,  but 
is  said  to  be  cultivated  some  in  North  India. 

Climate  for  Buckwheat. — While  buckwheat  will  grow  a  large 
crop  of  straw  on  good  soil,  in  any  temperate  climate,  yet  it  will  sel- 
dom set  seed  well  under  hot  or  dry  conditions.  The  flowers  are  said 
to  be  blasted;  that  is,  after  blooming  freely  the  flowers  die  but  no 
seed  appears.  Comparatively  cool  summer  weather  and  sufficient 
rain  to  keep  in  healthy  growth,  favor  a  good  set  of  seed.  Such 
climatic  conditions  are  most  common  in  northeastern  United  States, 
especially  in  the  rather  high  and  hilly  portions.  It  will  be  noted 
that  buckwheat  culture  follows,  in  a  general  way,  the  hilly  and 
mountainous  region  extending  from  New  York  through  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  Virginias.  Being  a  very  quick -growing  crop  it  can  be 
sown  in  mid-summer,  thus  bringing  the  blossoming  into  the  more 
favorable  fall  weather. 

Buckwheat  also  has  another  advantage  over  other  cereals  in  wide 
adaptation  to  climate.  It  will  continue  to  blossom  for  several  weeks, 
so  that  a  period  of  favorable  weather  occurring  at  any  time  during 
this  period  may  result  in  a  good  set  of  seed. 

Soils  for  Buckwheat. — Buckwheat  has  long  been  noted  as  one 
of  the  crops  that  will  do  fairly  well  on  poor  soils,  if  the  climate  is 
favorable.  It  will  also  do  better  than  most  crops  on  soils  lacking  in 
lime  and  drainage.  This  is  one  reason  for  its  extensive  culture  in 
the  hill  lands  of  the  eastern  States. 

While  buckwheat  will  do  well  on  productive  soil,  it  is  there 
brought  into  competition  with  other  crops,  as  wheat  or  corn,  and 
would  ordinarily  not  be  as  profitable.  Competing  crops  are  always 
an  important  consideration  in  determining  whether  a  crop  will  be 
grown  or  not. 

Fertilizers. — Buckwheat  responds  readily  to  applications  of  fer- 
tilizer or  manure.  Usually  manure  is  reserved  on  the  farm  for 
some  other  crop,  but  a  moderate  use  of  fertilizer  on  buckwheat  is 
quite  as  common  as  for  other  crops.  About  100  to  200  pounds  per 
acre  of  a  4-8-5  grain  fertilizer  is  considered  profitable,  but  on  the 


USES  OF  BUCKWHEAT  201 

land  where  buckwheat  is  generally  raised  it  would  not  be  considered 
wise  to  fertilize  heavily. 

Preparation  of  Land. — Often  buckwheat  land  is  poorly  pre- 
pared, as  it  is  sown  late  and  other  crops  are  cared  for  first.  Late 
plowing  is  common,,  yet  no  crop  responds  better  to  early  plowing 
and  thorough  preparation  even  though  sown  late. 

Time  of  Seeding. — As  buckwheat  will  mature  in  60  to  70  days 
from  sowing,  it  may  be  sown  just  late  enough  to  mature  before  frost. 
The  fall  season  is  usually  more  favorable  than  the  summer  season 
for  maturing  the  seed  crop.  The  average  time  of  sowing  in  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  is  July  1,  though  it  extends,  from  June  15  to 
July  15.  Harvesting  is  generally  in  the  third  week  of  September. 

Sowing  the  Seed. — The  ordinary  rate  of  seeding  is  three  to  four 
pecks  per  acre,  though  it  varies  from  two  to  five  pecks.  The  seed 
grows  easily,  and  since  the  plants  grow  rapidly,  branching  out  to 
occupy  all  the  land,  there  is  little  difficulty  in  securing  a  good  stand. 

The  seed  is  commonly  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed  in,  though 
if  the  weather  is  dry  and  the  land  weedy,  drilling  is  much  better. 

Harvesting. — As  buckwheat  continues  to  blossom  and  set  seed 
until  frost,  it  is  usually  cut  when  the  largest  yield  of  ripe  seed  can 
be  secured.  Ordinarily  this  is  60  to  80  days  after  sowing,  but,  in 
general,  the  crop  is  cut  just  before  killing  frost. 

In  dry  weather  the  grain  shatters  off  easily,  so  it  is  good  practice 
to  cut  on  a  damp  day  or  early  in  the  morning.  It  is  not  usually 
bound  as  other  grain,  but  cut  with  a  self -drop  reaper,  which  leaves 
the  straw  in  loose  gavels.  As  the  straw  is  green  and  cures  slowly,  it 
may  be  left  in  gavels  for  several  days.  It  is  then  set  up  without 
binding,  but  a  handful  of  straw  is  twisted  about  the  top,  and  two 
or  three  bunches  set  together. 

Threshing. — Buckwheat  is  seldom  stacked  or  put  in  a  barn,  as 
the  straw  does  not  readily  dry  enough  to  stack  without  great  danger 
of  heating.  It  threshes  very  easily  and  may  be  threshed  when 
slightly  damp.  As  the  seeds  are  likely  to  crack,  and  the  straw  break 
up,  the  concave  teeth  are  often  removed  from  the  threshing  machine 
and  boards  or  smooth  concave  plates  inserted. 

Uses  of  Buckwheat. — Buckwheat  has  been  used  from  earliest 
times  as  human  food.  In  America  its  principal  use  as  human  food 


202  BUCKWHEAT 

is  in  the  form  of  griddle  cakes,  very  common  in  country  districts.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  crop  was  formerly  fed  to  stock,  and  is 
used  thus  at  present  when  the  price  is  low. 

When  buckwheat  is  ground  about  50  to  60  per  cent  is  recovered 
as  flour,  about  25  per  cent  middlings,  and  a  somewhat  less  percentage 
of  hulls.  The  middlings  are  highly  prized  as  stock  feed,  but  the 
hulls  have  little  value. 

Buckwheat  is  consi  iered  to  have  special  merit  as  a  poultry  feed. 
Beekeepers  have  long  recognized  it  as  producing  an  abundant  and 
superior  grade  of  honey. 

Buckwheat  straw  has  little  feeding  value,  but  is  considered 
valuable  as  a  mulch.  It  rots  down  so  quickly  that  an  old  stack  of 
buckwheat  straw  is  often  hauled  directly  on  the  land  as  manure. 

Buckwheat  as  Green  Manure. — Owing  to  its  growth  on  poor 
land,  buckwheat  is  often  recommended  as  a  green  manure  crop.  It 
may  be  sown  after  a  rye  crop  is  plowed  down,  and  either  harvested 
or  turned  under.  Rye  and  buckwheat  may  be  sown  together  in  July, 
the  buckwheat  harvested  and  the  rye  allowed  to  grow  and  be  plowed 
down  as  green  manure  the  following  June.  This  may  be  repeated 
year  after  year  on  the  same  land,  gradually  increasing  the  humus 
supply  of  the  soil,  and  meantime  paying  expenses  with  the  buckwheat 
crop.  In  Virginia  crimson  clover  is  sown  with  buckwheat  in  the 
same  way. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  important  is  the  buckwheat  crop?     Where  grown? 

2.  What  wild  plants  is  buckwheat  related  to? 

3.  Compare  the  plant  with  other  cereals. 

4.  Describe  the  flowers. 

5.  Describe  the  grain. 

6.  How  does  it  compare  with  wheat  in  composition? 

7.  Name  and  describe  the  three  principal  types. 

8.  Of   the   common   buckwheat   what  are   the   three   principal   varieties? 

How  distinguished? 

9.  Where  is  Tartar  buckwheat  grown? 

10.  Describe  the  climate  favorable  to  buckwheat. 

11.  What  advantages  does  a    short-growing  period  and  a  long-blossoming 

period  give  to  buckv     at? 

12.  Why  is  buckwheat  gro..        n  poor  soils  as  a  general  rule  rather  than 

on  good   soils  ? 

13.  Does  it  respond  to  fertilizer? 

14.  Compare  time  of  sowing  with  other  cereals. 

15.  Describe  method  of  harvesting. 

16.  Give  the  principal  uses  of  buckwheat. 

17.  What  is  its  value  as  a  green  manure  crop? 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
COTTON  * 

COTTON  is  tlie  greatest  of  all  fiber  crops.  It  provides  the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  clothing  for  mankind.  Of  the  four  great  staples 
from  which  clothes  are  made — cotton,  silk,  wool,  and  flax — cotton  is 
rapiclly  superseding  the  others.  It  is  easy  to  grow,  easy' to  manu- 
facture, and  its  finished  product  is  cheap.  And  from  no  other  crop 
are  df  rived  so  many  useful  by-products. 

Cotton  is  the  leading  cash  crop  of  our  country.  Its  imperishable 
nature  renders  it  proof  against  depreciation  in  storage  and  it  is  the 
only  important  crop,  with  the  exception  of  tobacco,  which  is  con- 
verted directly  and  entirely  into  money. 

World  Production  of  Cotton. — The  production  of  cotton  is 
confined  to  warm  countries.  Previous  to  the  first  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  India  was  the  leading  cotton-producing  country 
and  a  considerable  part  of  the  world's  crop  was  also  grown  in  Egypt. 
Since  1830,  however,  the  production  of  cotton  has  centered  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  United  States.  At  the  present  time  the  south- 
ern States  produce  three-fourths  of  the  total  cotton  crop  of  the  world. 
This  is  shown  by  the  following  table,  which  includes  in  round 
numbers  the  average  for  the  crops  of  1911,  1912,  1913: 

Countries  Bales 

United  States 14,500,000 

India    3,300,000 

Egypt   1,500,000 

Other  countries    1,200,000 


Total     20,500,000 

Cotton  Production  in  the  United  States. — Although  climatic 
conditions  restrict  the  commercial  production  of  cotton  to  a  group  of 
States  constituting  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  total  area  of  the  coun- 
try, yet  in  value  the  annual  cotton  crop  is  exceeded  only  by  corn  and 
hay.  Since  the  hay  crop  is  composed  of  many  different  grasses  and 
legumes,  corn  may  be  considered  the  only  plant  from  which  a  crop  is 

Prepared  by'Dr.  W.  C.  Etheridge,  Florida  Agricultural  College. 

203 


204  COTTON 

produced  that  exceeds  the  cotton  crop  in  value.  Among  the  eight 
leading  crops  of  the  United  States,  the  cotton  crop  ranks  much 
higher  in  percentage  of  total  value  than  in  percentage  of  total  acre- 
age. This  is  shown  by  the  following  table  drawn  from  the  average 
acreage  and  value  of  each  of  these  crops  for  the  years  1911,  1912, 
1913: 

Crop                     Per  cent  of  total  value           Crop  Per  cent  of  total  acreage 

Corn    „ 34.9                 Corn     36.3 

Hay    16.6                 Wheat     17.1 

Cotton   16.3                 Hay    16.8 

Wheat    14.4                Oats  13.0 

Oats 9.0                Cotton   12.3 

Potatoes    4.6                 Barley    2.7 

Barley     2.2                 Potatoes    1.4 

Tobacco 2.0                Tobacco     0.4 


Total    100.0  Total    100.0 

Cotton  Production  by  States. — The  American  cotton  crop  is 
produced  almost  entirely  by  ten  States.  These  are  the  following, 
arranged  in  order  according  to  their  average  crop  of  1912,  1913, 
.1914: 

State  Per  cent  of  American  crop  State  Per  cent  of  American  crop 

Texas 30.5  Oklahoma   7.1 

Georgia     15.5  Arkansas    6.6 

Alabama    10.4  North  Carolina   5.9 

South  Carolina   9.3  Louisiana    /•.'. 2.9 

Mississippi    8.2  Tennessee    2.4 

Other  southern  States  combined  produce  only  1.2  per  cent  of 
the  total  crop. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  American  cotton  crop  is  fairly  distributed 
within  the  territory  lying  south  of  a  line  running  west  from  the 
southeast  corner  of  Virginia  to  the  northwest  corner  of  Oklahoma 
and  thence  south  akmg  the  western  border  of  Texas.  In  certain 
States  of  this  territory  the  production  of  the  possible  amount  of 
cotton  is  not  reached  by  reason  of  the  interposition  of  other  crops. 
Thus,  in  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee  tobacco  supersedes  cotton  to 
a  considerable  extent,  while  in  Louisiana  sugar  cane  and  rice  are 
extensively  cultivated.  Above  the  southern  border  of  Virginia  the 
production  of  cotton  for  commercial  purposes  is  prohibited  by  the 
cool  climate.  West  of  Texas  the  light  rainfall  is  a  limiting  factor, 
although  small  amounts  of  cotton  are  produced  in  certain  areas. 


HISTORY  IN  AMERICA  ,     205 

Early  History  of  Cotton. — Cotton  is  a  tropical  plant,  which  is 
adapted  also  to  the  semitropic  and  mild  temperate  regions.  The 
history  of  the  plant,  both  as  to  its  origin  and  as  to  its  first  use,  is 
obscure.  For  ages,  we  know,  it  has  been  a  native  of  the  tropical 
parts  of  both  hemispheres.  India,  it  appears,  as  early  as  1500  B.C. 
was  the  center  of  an  important  cotton  industry.  Many  centuries 
before  the  Christian  Era,  the  Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Phoenicians  had 
reached  an  advanced  stage  in  the  artistic  spinning  and  weaving  of 
cotton  fiber. 

Although  a  knowledge  of  the  cotton  plant  and  its  usefulness 
spread  gradually  to  China,  Japan,  and  Southern  Europe,  the  culture 
of  the  plant  and  the  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth  seem  not  to  have 
been  practised  in  early  times  by  the  people  of  these  countries.  Silk, 
linen,  and  wool  were  preferred,  and  cotton  cloth  was  used  only  when 
brought  from  India.  Even  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  countries  of 
Southern  Europe  had  not  engaged  in  the  production  and  manufac- 
ture of  cotton.  Spain  and  Turkey  were  the  first  to  enter  this  in- 
dustry. In  the  fourteenth  century  Granada,  Spain,  was  noted  for 
its  cotton  cloth.  From  Spain  and  Turkey  the  use  of  cotton  spread 
to  other  countries  of  Southern  Europe  and  advanced  gradually  north- 
ward. By  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  England  had  de- 
veloped an  important  trade  in  cotton  and  was  beginning  to  import 
the  raw  material  from  America. 

History  in  America. — Columbus  found  the  cotton  plant  growing 
in  the  West  Indies.  Other  explorers  in  the  early  part  of  the  six- 
teenth century  found  cotton  in  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Brazil.  In  these 
countries  the  fiber  cotton  provided  the  chief  articles  of  clothing. 
In  a  word,  cotton  was  known  and  used  in  what  are  now  the  Latin 
American  countries  at  the  time  of  the  settlement  in  North  America 
by  the  English.  But,  strangely,  the  aborigines  of  the  section  now 
comprising  the  cotton  belt  of  the  United  States  seem  not  to  have 
known  or  used  cotton.  It  is,  therefore,  doubtful  that  the  plant  is 
indigenous  to  any  part  of  the  United  States. 

The  early  colonists  of  Virginia,  bringing  seed  from  Europe,  soon 
began  the  culture  of  cotton  and  there  is  evidence  that  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century  they  made  cotton  cloth.  Cotton  is 


206  COTTON 

mentioned  among  the  products  of  Carolina  in  1666,  and  by  1708  it 
is  said  to  have  become  one  of  the  principal  commodities  of  that 
colony.  By  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  culture 
and  use  of  cotton  had  extended  to  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissippi, and  Louisiana,  the  seed  being  brought  from  all  quarters  of 
the  globe.  In  1786,  Thomas  Jefferson  in  a  letter  said : 

"  The  four  southernmost  states  make  a  great  deal  of  cotton. 
Their  poor  are  almost  entirely  clothed  with  it  in  winter  and  in 
summer/' 

-  Invention  of  the  Cotton  Gin. — The  export  movement  of  cotton 
began  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  in  1793,  the  year 
before  Eli  Whitney  patented  his  saw  gin,  about  2000  bales  were  sent 
abroad.  In  the  same  year  22,222  bales  were  produced.  In  1796,  a 
year  after  Whitney  had  improved  his  machine,  about  45,000  bales 
were  grown  and  one-half  of  this  amount  exported.  The  invention 
by  Kichard  Arkwright  in  England,  1796,  of  a  machine  for  spinning 
cotton  had  created  a  great  demand  for  the  raw  fiber,  and  Whitney's 
gin,  which  separated  the  fiber  from  the  seeds,  made  possible  a  greater 
supply.  Thus  we  see  the  stimulus  of  a  great  industry  in  the  inven- 
tion of  the  two  machines.  Within  one  hundred  years,  from  1790  to 
1890,  the  production  of  cotton  in  the  United  States  increased  from 
5000  bales  to  over  10,000,000  bales,  and  cotton  became  the  great 
southern  crop. 

Cotton  Manufacture  in  the  United  States. — The  development 
of  cotton  manufacturing  as  a  great  national  industry  began  with  the 
first  cotton  mill,  built  in  Massachusetts  in  1788.  This  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  others  in  various  parts  of  the  eastern  border  of  the  country. 
In  them  carding  and  spinning  was  done  by  machinery,  but  weaving 
was  by  hand-looms  until  1815,  when  a  power-loom  was  built,  also  in 
Massachusetts.  The  manufacture  of  cotton  rapidly  increased  until, 
in  1860,  there  were  more  than  one  thousand  mills  capitalized  at  about 
one  hundred  million  dollars,  using  each  year  more  than  four  hun- 
dred million  pounds  of  raw  material,  and  turning  out  annually  a 
finished  product  valued  at  nearly  one  hundred  and  sixteen  million 
dollars.  During  the  great  "  cotton  famine  "  caused  by  the  Civil 
War  the  production  and  manufacture  of  cotton  in  the  United  States 
practically  ceased,  and  it  was  not  until  1868  that  the  cotton  industry 


VARIETIES  207 

regained  its  position  of  1860.  To-day  the  manufacture  of  cotton  in 
the  United  States  is  by  far  the  greatest  industry  related  to  American 
agriculture. 

Classification. — The  cotton  plant  belongs  to  fhe  genus 
Gossypium,  a  member  of  the  Mallow  family.  The  number  of  its 
botanical  species  is  variously  stated  as  from  four  to  eighty-eight. 
However,  all  authorities  agree  that  the  cotton  of  commerce  is  the 
product  of  only  a  few  species.  Parlatore  names  seven  species,  as 
follows : 

1.  Gossypium   Barladense,    the    long-stapled    Barbadoes,    Sea 
Island,  Egyptian,  and  Peruvian  varieties. 

2.  Gossypium  herbaceum,  the  varieties  of  India,  Siam,  China, 
and  Italy. 

3.  Gossypium  hirsutum,  the  American  upland  varieties. 

4.  Gossypium    arboreum>    found    in    Ceylon,    Arabia,    South 
America,  etc. 

5.  Gossypwm  Peruvianum,  the  native  varieties  of  Peru  and 
Brazil. 

6.  Gossypium  Trihitense,  found  chiefly  in  Tahiti  and  the  Society 
Islands. 

7.  Gossypium  Sandwichense,  found  in  the  Sandwich  and  ad- 
jacent islands. 

Species  Grown  in  the  United  States. — In  the  United  States 
G.  hirsutum  and  G.  Barbadense,  embracing,  respectively,  the  upland 
and  Sea  Island  varieties,  are  the  only  species  cultivated  com- 
mercially. 

Upland  Cotton. — Although  it  is  probable  that  American  upland 
cotton  is  derived  from  the  blending  of  several  species,  the  present 
predominating  type  resembles  more  closely  G.  hirsutum  than  any 
other  species.  Hence,  G.  hirsutum,  a  native  species  of  Mexico,  is 
commonly  thought  to  include  both  the  short-staple  and  long-staple 
upland  cotton  of  the  United  States. 

Varieties. — American  upland  varieties  are  of  two  principal 
classes,  namely,  short-staple  and  long-staple  (Figs.  75  and  76). 
There  is  another  class,  transitional  with  either  of  the  foregoing 
classes,  called  "  Benders  "  or  "  Rivers  " — the  names  signifying  any 
common  type  grown  on  rich,  moist  bottom  lands  and  hence  pro- 


208  COTTON 

ducing  an  unusually  long  staple.  This  latter  class  is  merely 
a  commercial  grade.  The  short-staple  and  long-staple  classes 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  longer  lint,  the  more  slender  and 
sharper  pointed  bolls  and  the  later  maturing  period  of  the  latter 
class. 

Number  of  Varieties. — There  are  very  many  varieties  of  upland 
cotton,  most  of  them  differing  but  slightly  and  being  only  tem- 


FIG.  75. — An  American  short-staple  upland  variety,  Culpepper. 

porarily  modified  by  environment.  Many  others  are  the  result  of 
crossing,  both  natural  and  artificial,  and  the  segregation  of  indi- 
vidual types.  Very  often  a  group  of  so-called  varieties  are  merely  a 
single  type  represented  by  different  names.  At  the  Alabama  Experi- 
ment Station  most  of  the  upland  varieties  were  collected  and  classi- 
fied, and  while  many  of  them  were  found  to  be  identical  there  were 


VARIETIES 


209 


probably  not  less  than  one  hundred  which  differed  by  one  or  more 
characteristics. 

Classification  of  Varieties. — The  classification  of  the  upland 
groups,  by  Duggar,  is  here  given,  with  slight  modifications  in  de- 
scription : 

1.  Cluster   Type. — Plants   slender  with  long  basal  limbs   and 
extremely  short  middle  and 

upper  fruiting  limbs;  bolls 
small  and  tending  to  grow 
in  clusters;  seeds  small  to 
medium  and  thickly  covered 
with  fuzz.  The  plant  has  a 
special  tendency  to  drop  its 
fruit.  Example :  Jackson. 

2.  Semicluster    Type. — 
Plants  with  general  appear- 
ance of  the  cluster  type,  but 
with  somewhat  longer  fruit- 
ing limbs;   bolls  of  various 
sizes,    borne    close   together 
but  not  in  clusters;    seeds 
of  various  sizes.     Example: 
Plawtcins. 

3.  Rio   Grande  Type. — 
Plants   with   slender,   long- 
jointed    limbs;    leaves    un- 
usually small  with  narrow, 
sharp-pointed    lobes ;     bolls 
small    to     medium;     seeds 
small,    dark,    smoky-brown, 

and  almost  without  the  short  fuzz  common  to  other  varieties ;  pro- 
portion of  lint  to  seed  unusually  high — 35  to  40  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  lock-cotton.  Example :  PeterJcin. 

4.  Early  Type. — Plants  small,  with  long,  slender,  usually  crooked 
fruiting  limbs ;  basal  limbs  short  or  wanting ;  leaves  similar  to  those 
of  the  Rio  Grande  type ;  bolls  small ;  seeds  small  and  covered  with 
fuzz  of  different  shades ;  fiber  short ;  blossoms  usually  marked  with 

14 


FIG.  76. — An  American  long-staple,  upland  vari- 
ety, Allen's  Early. 


210  COTTON 

a  purple-red  spot  near  the  inner  base  of  each  petal ;  seed-cotton  falls 
easily  from  the  fully  opened  pods.     Example :  King. 

5.  Big-boll  Type. — This  type  is  characterized  by  its  extremely 
large  bolls — sixty-eight  or  fewer  mature  bolls  yielding  one  pound  of 
seed-cotton.     It  may  be  divided  into  the  following  transitional  sub- 
types : 

(a)  Storm-proof,  big-boll  varieties.     Example :   Triumph. 

(b)  Big-boll  varieties  of  the  shape  which  characterizes  the  semi- 
cluster  type.     Example :   Truitt. 

(c)  Big-boll  varieties  having  neither  marked  storm  resistance 
nor  semicluster  shape  of  plant.     Example :  Russell. 

6.  Long-limb  Type. — Plants  extremely  large,  with  long,  woody 
limbs,  which  have  long  internodes.     No  productive  variety  is  in- 
cluded in  this  class  and  the  type  is  disappearing. 

7.  Intermediate  Type. — In  this  class  may  be  placed  varieties  the 
group  relationship  of  which  is  uncertain. 

8.  Long-staple  Upland  Type. — Plants  tall  and  usually  of  a  semi- 
cluster  type ;  bolls  rather  slender  and  usually  especially  susceptible 
to  injury  from  boll-rot  (anthracnose)  ;   seeds  densely  covered  with 
white  fuzz ;  fiber  long,  but  weak,  and  in  small  proportion  by  weight 
to  the  seed.     Example :    Griffin. 

The  foregoing  upland  types  produce  all  of  the  cotton  crop  of 
the  United  States  except  the  small  amount  of  Sea  Island  cotton 
grown  near  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coasts.  The  staple  of 
upland  varieties  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  coarser  cotton 
fabrics. 

Sea  Island  Cotton. — The  Sea  Island  cotton  (G.  Barbadense)  is 
grown  on  or  near  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida. 
The  plant  is  characterized  by  its  extreme  height,  and  long,  slender, 
smooth  branches ;  by  its  yellow  blooms  with  their  red  spots  near 
the  base  of  each  petal;  by  its  rather  small,  slender  bolls;  and  by 
its  long,  fine  fiber  and  naked  black  seeds.  The  fiber  of  Sea  Island 
cotton  is  longer  than  that  of  the  upland  varieties.  It  is  fine  and 
silky  and  is  spun  in  the  finest  yarns  and  used  largely  for  the  manu- 
facture of  threads,  laces,  cambrics,  and  fine  hosiery. 

Description  of  the  Cotton  Plant. — All  the  common  species  of 
cotton  are  perennial  in  frostless  climates,  but  in  cultivation  they  are 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT 


211 


usually  treated  as  annuals.  The  plants  are  tap-rooted,  erect,  shrub- 
like  and  rather  woody.  The  branches  are  in  pairs,  spreading  and 
strongly  jointed;  and  the  stems  and  branches  are  in  most  species 
covered  with  delicate,  whitish  hairs.  The  leaves  are  three  to  five 
lobed.  In  upland  varieties  the  flowers  are  white,  turning  red  on  the 


FIQ.  77. 

i/v" 


FIG.  78. 


FIG.  77. — The  flower  of  upland  cotton,  viewed  from  the  side,  showing  the  bracts, 
calyx,  and  petals  (after  Cook). 

FIG.  78. — Showing  the  "squares"  of  cotton — the  unopened  buds  enclosed  by  the 
bracts  (after  Cook). 

second  day  of  blooming,  but  Sea  Island  cotton  has  yellow  flowers 
with  a  purple-red  spot  at  the  base  of  each  petal:  The  flowers  are 
surrounded  by  three  to  five  deeply  fringed  bracts  (Fig.  77) — the 
number  corresponding  to  the  number  of  cells  in  the  bolls.  Previous 
to  the  opening  of  the  blossom,  the  enclosing  bracts  form  the  so-called 
"squares"  (Fig.  78).  The  bolls  are  irregularly  oblong  or  oval  in 
shape  and  are  somewhat  pointed.  They  have  three  to  five  cells  and 


212  COTTON 

at  maturity  they  burst  open  and  the  locks  of  fiber,  attached  to  the 
seeds,  are  easily  gathered  (Fig.  79) . 

Since  the  fiber  and  seeds  constitute  the  cotton  crop,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  consider  them  separately  and  in  greater  detail. 

Fiber. — The  fiber  constitutes  about  10  per  cent,  by  weight,  of 


ABC  D 

FIG.  79. — Showing  the  opening  of  the  cotton  boll;  and  the  lock-cotton,  or  seed-cotton; 
A,  the  unopened  boll;  B,  the  boll  partly  opened;  C,  the  boll  fully  opened,  and  the  locks  of 
fiber;  D,  the  empty  pod  after  the  lock-cotton  has  been  gathered. 

the  mature  plant.     It  is  poor  in  fertilizing  constituents,  a  bale  of 
lint  (500  pounds)  containing  only: 

Nitrogen   1.7  pounds 

Phosphoric  acid    0.6  pound 

Potash 2.3  pounds 

Lime    1.6  pounds 

Proportion  of  Fiber  to  Seed. — The  proportion  of  fibers  to  seeds  in 
lock-cotton  is  usually  33  to  35  per  cent  of  the  total  weight,  although 
extreme  proportions  of  30  to  40  per  cent  are  often  found.  The  pro- 
duction of  a  large  proportion  of  fiber  is  a  very  desirable  varietal 
characteristic. 

Dimensions  and  Strength  of  the  Fiber. — Each  cotton  fiber  is  a 
tubular,  hair-like  cell  0.001  to  0.025  inch  in  diameter.  Its  length 
varies  among  different  species  and  varieties.  The  average  length 
of  the  fiber  of  American  upland  short-staple  varieties  is  from 
0.80  to  0.95  inch,  while  in  long-staple  varieties  it  is  from  0.90  to 
1.50  inches  (Figs.  80  and  81).  The  fiber  of  Sea  Island  cotton  is 


FIBER 


213 


usually  from  1.50  to  2.00  inches  in  length.  The  tensile  strength  of 
the  fiber  is  estimated  by  the  weight  required  to  break  a  single  strand. 
This  is  usually  6  to  8  grams,  but  extreme  breaking  weights  of  4  to 
14  grams  have  been  found.  A  fiber  of  cotton  is  about  three  times  as 
strong  as  a  strand  of  wool  in  proportion  to  size. 


Fia.  80. — The  fiber  of  an  upland  short-staple  variety. 
FIG.  81.— The  fiber  of  an  upland  long-staple  variety. 

Classification  of  Fibers. — In  every  lot  of  cotton  there  are  three 
classes  of  fibers  (Fig.  82)  —  (1)  unripe,  (2)  half -ripe,  (3)  ripe. 
These  may  readily  be  distinguished  by  observing  with  a  microscope 
the  extent  to  which  they  are  twisted.  The  unripe  fiber  is  cylindrical 
and  tubular  in  form  for  most  of  its  length.  It  is  transparent,  some- 
what turgid  and  shows  little  or  no  twist.  As  the  fiber  ripens  its 
tubular  form  collapses  and  contracts  until  finally  it  is  much  like  a 
twisted  ribbon  with  somewhat  thickened  and  corrugated  edges. 


214 


COTTON 


Only  the  ripe,  twisted  fibers  are  fit  for  perfect  spinning  and  dyeing. 
The  flattened  and  twisted  form  of  the  cotton  fiber  makes  it  par- 
ticularly useful  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth.  No  other  vegetable 
fibers  are  like  cotton  in  this  respect.  As  compared  with  wool,  the 
cotton  fiber  is  smooth  and  twisted,  while  a  strand  of  wool  is  straight 
and  its  edges  are  scaly. 


Fio.  82. — Showing  the  three  classes  of  cotton  fibers:    A,  unripe;  B,  half-ripe;  C,  ripe  (after 

Bowman). 

Desirable  Qualities  of  the  Fiber. — The  value  of  cotton  fiber  is 
determined  by  its  color,  length,  tensile  strength,  ripeness,  fineness, 
and  uniformity.  The  lint  which  grades  highest  in  these  respects  is 
spun  into  the  finer  and  more  expensive  cotton  fabrics. 

Seed. — About  20  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  dried,  mature 
plant  is  in  the  seeds.  The  average  number  of  seeds  in  the  usual  four- 
celled  boll  is  from  thirty-five  to  forty ;  but  there  is  considerable  vari- 
ation, depending  upon  the  number  of  cells  in  the  boll  and  the  vigor 


BY-PRODUCTS  OF  COTTON  215 

of  the  plant.  The  proportion  of  seeds  in  lock-cotton  is  usually 
about  two-thirds  of  the  total  weight. 

Fertilizing  Constituents  in  the  Seed. — The  seeds  of  cotton,  un- 
like the  fiber,  are  rich  in  fertilizing  constituents.  In  1000  pounds 
of  seeds,  which  is  approximately  the  complement  of  500  pounds  of 
lint,  there  are  the  following  amounts  of  plant  food  elements : 

Nitrogen 31      pounds 

Phosphoric  acid    13      pounds 

Potash    12      pounds 

Lime    2.5  pounds 

Covering  of  the  Seed. — Beneath  the  long  fibers,  the  seeds  (Fig. 
83)  of  most  upland  varieties  are  densely  covered  with  a  short  fuzz, 
which  may,  according  to  the 
variety,  be  gray,  green,  or  brown. 
However,  there  are  a  few 
varieties  the  seeds  of  which  are 
almost  free  from  this  cover- 
ing. The  Peterkin  variety, 
which  has  naked  brown  or  black 
seeds,  is  a  notable  example  of 
this  type.  In  Sea  Island  cotton, 
also,  the  seeds  are  nearly  or  quite 
naked  after  the  long  fibers  are 

FIG.  83. — Showing  two  types  of  cotton 

removed.  seed:   A,  seeds  with  a  short,  fuzzy  cover- 

-_..,.        ,-,  -n       7     7        mi  ins:  B>  smooth,  or  naked  seeds. 

Weight    Per    Bushel. — The 

legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of  seeds  is  usually  either  33  or  33%  pounds, 
although  naked  seeds,  that  is,  those  lacking  the  fuzzy  covering,  are 
several  pounds  heavier.  The  naked,  smooth,  Sea  Island  seeds  usually 
weigh  about  forty-four  pounds  per  bushel. 

Structure  of  the  Seed. — The  general  structure  of  a  cotton  seed 
is  very  simple.  There  are  only  two  main  parts — the  rough  outer 
hull,  or  seed-coat,  and  the  kernel.  The  kernel  is  somewhat  shrunken 
and  is  easily  removed  from  the  hull.  It  consists  mainly  of  two  fleshy 
seed  leaves  folded  around  the  embryo,  or  young  plant.  From  the 
seeds  are  derived  the  valuable  by-products  of  the  cotton  crop — feeds, 
fertilizer,  and  oil. 

By-products  of  Cotton. — The  products  of  the  cotton  plant  do 


216  COTTON 

not  consist  wholly  of  clothing  made  from  the  fiber.  Fertilizer,  oil, 
and  feeds  for  animals  are  derived  as  by-products  from  the  seeds  and 
represent  a  large  part  of  the  total  value  of  the  crop. 

Production  of  Oil  and  Cake. — The  seeds  are  composed  of  about 
equal  proportions  by  weight  of  hulls  and  kernels.  After  they  have 
been  separated  from  the  hulls,  the  kernels  are  heated  and  pressed. 
Cottonseed  oil  and  cottonseed  cake  are  the  products.  A  ton  of 
cotton  seed  will  usually  yield  about  300  pounds  of  oil,  750  pounds  of 
cake  and  800  pounds  of  hulls,  the  remaining  150  pounds  representing 
evaporation  and  waste  materials. 

Cottonseed  Meal. — The  cottonseed  cake  is  usually  ground  into 
cottonseed  meal,  although  it  may  be  used  as  feed  without  being 
ground.  Cottonseed  meal  is  very  valuable,  either  as  feed  or 
fertilizer. 

Constituents  of  Cottonseed  Meal. — The  following  table  will  show 
the  richness  of  cottonseed  meal  in  the  principal  feed  and  fertilizing 
constituents : 

Average  percentage  contained 
Principal  feed  constituents  in  cottonseed  meal 

Protein 44 

Nitrogen-free  extract 21 

Fat    14 

Fiber 5 

Principal  fertilizing  constituents 

Nitrogen    7 

Phosphoric  acid   3 

Potash    2 

Use  of  Cottonseed  Meal  as  Feed. — Cottonseed  meal  is  an  excellent 
concentrate  with  which  to  supplement  the  roughage  fed  to  sheep  and 
dairy  cattle,  but  it  is  little  used  as  a  feed  for  horses.  It  has  a  specific 
toxic  effect  on  hogs  and  when  fed  in  quantity  will  cause  their  death 
within  periods  of  from  five  to  seven  weeks.  Cottonseed  meal  is 
probably  injurious  to  most  other  young  animals,  particularly  to 
calves. 

Use  of  Cottonseed  Meal  as  Fertilizer. — The  great  value  of  cotton- 
seed meal  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cattle  has  in  recent  years  caused  the 
price  of  this  material  rapidly  to  advance.  At  present  prices  cotton- 
seed meal,  although  an  excellent  nitrogenous  fertilizer,  will  give 


BY-PRODUCTS  OF  COTTON  217 

larger  returns  in  money  when  fed  to  dairy  cattle  or  to  fattening 
steers  than  when  applied  to  the  soil. 

Cottonseed  Oil. — Cottonseed  oil  is  almost  identical  in  composi- 
tion with  olive  oil.  Its  various  grades  are  used  as  salad  oils  and 
cooking  oils,  as  a  lubricant,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarine, 
soaps,  and  paints. 

Cottonseed  Hulls. — Cottonseed  hulls  are  tough,  woody  material 
and  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  fiber-board  from  which 
are  made  trunks,  gear-wheels  and  many  other  useful  articles.  They 
are  often  used  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cattle,  but  they  are  poor  in  fats 
and  protein  and  are  usually  supplemented  with  cottonseed  meal. 
Their  ash,  however,  is  rich  in  fertilizing  constituents — potash,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  lime — and  is  a  valuable  fertilizer,  although  little 
used. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
COTTON  CULTURE 

Climate. — Cotton  is  a  delicate,  sun-loving  plant.  It  requires 
for  its  development  a  long,  warm  growing  season  of  six  or  seven 
months,  during  which  the  rainfall  is  evenly  distributed. 

Length  of  Growing  Season. — One  of  the  most  important  features 
of  a  climate  suited  to  the  growth  of  cotton  is  the  probable  date  of 
the  last  killing  frost  in  spring  and  of  the  earliest  frost  in  autumn. 
Unless  there  is  a  frostless  period  between  these  dates  of  at  least  180 
days  the  fullest  development  of  the  plant  in  all  of  its  functions  will 
not  be  attained,  for  while  the  harvesting  of  cotton  often  extends  far 
into  winter,  the  first  killing  frost  of  autumn  checks  the  active  growth 
of  the  plant,  and  the  blossoms  and  the  bolls  formed  at  this  time  will 
not  develop  mature  fiber  (Fig.  84). 

Amount  and  Distribution  of  Rainfall. — The  amount  and  distri- 
bution of  rainfall  has  a  very  important  bearing  on  the  success  of  the 
crop.  The  cotton  plant  thrives  best  during  a  season  marked  by  light, 
frequenlj  showers,  preferably  at  night,  so  that  there  may  be  the 
maximum  daily  amount  of  sunshine.  Heavy,  frequent  rains  during 
that  period  in  the  life  of  the  plant  from  the  thinning  or  "  chopping 
out "  process  to  the  formation  of  the  first  bolls  will  cause  a  too  rapid 
development  of  the  vegetative  parts  to  the  detriment  of  a  normal 
formation  of  the  flowers  and  fruit.  Pf  rains  are  too  frequent  during 
the  latter  part  of  this  period,  the  unopened  flowers,  or  "  squares," 
drop  from  the  plant  in  great  numbers  and  its  yield  is  consequently 
decreased.  Also,  boll-rot  (anthracnose)  is-  more  prevalent  in  rainy 
seasons  than  in  others.  During  the  picking  season,  if  heavy  rains 
occur,  a  considerable  amount  of  the  lint  is  discolored,  or  even 
beaten  from  the  open  pods  and  lost. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  of  the  growing  season  should 
be  high  and  its  daily  range  uniform  during  the  early  life  of  the 
plant.  Either  a  great  and  sudden  rise  in  temperature  or  a  pro- 
longed coolness  during  this  period  is  liable  to  check  the  vegetative 
218 


CLIMATE 


219 


growth  and  hasten  an  undesirable  premature  ripening.  After  the 
first  part  of  August,  however,  when  the  plant  has  attained  its  full 
vegetative  growth,  a  lower  and  more  varied  temperature  is  desirable. 
Cool  nights  at  this  period  favor  the  production  of  a  maximum  crop, 
for  the  lower  temperature  checks  the  vegetative  growth  and  hastens 
the  maturation  of  the  seeds  and  fiber. 

Region  Suited  to  Cotton.— The  cotton  belt  of  the  United  States 
is  the  area  between  37°  latitude  and  Gulf  Coast  and  east  of  the  west- 
ern border  of  Texas.  The  heavy  frosts  of  this  section  have  generally 


FIG.  84. — A  field  of  upland  cotton  in  September. 

ended  by  the  middle  of  April,  and  if  cotton  is  planted  in  time  to 
show  above  ground  by  the  first  of  May  there  is  little  danger  of  it 
being  frost-killed.  The  frosts  of  autumn  generally  do  not  come 
before  the  middle  of  October  or  the  first  of  November,  and  the  plant 
has  six  to  seven  months  of  warm,  frostless  weather  in  which  to  pro- 
duce its  crop.  The  average  mean  temperature  of  the  cotton  belt, 
from  April  to  October,  inclusive,  ranges  from  71°  F.  in  the  northern 
area  to  74°  F.  in  the  southern  area.  During  the  same  period  there 
are,  on  the  average,  in  each  100  days  about  56  which  are  clear  and 
sunny,  and  32  which  are  likely  to  produce  rain,  The  climatic  re- 


220  COTTON  CULTURE 

quirements  of  the  cotton  plant  are  by  these  conditions  ideally 
fulfilled. 

Soils. — The  upland  cotton  does  not  require  a  particular  type  of 
soil.  It  readily  grows  on  all  types  if  the  conditions  of  climate  are 
favorable.  The  cotton  crop  is  produced  with  success  on  sandy  soils, 
on  loams,  on  the  various  types  of  clay  soils,  and  on  silty  bottom-lands. 
However,  the  appearance  of  the  plant  is  slightly  modified  and  its 
yield  is  varied  by  the  influence  of  different  soils.  On  sandy  uplands, 
the  plant  is  small  and  inclined  toward  abundant  fruitage,  although 
its  total  yield  is  light.  On  heavy  clay  soils  and  on  bottom-lands,  the 
plant,  in  wet  seasons,  grows  large  and  woody,  fruiting  lightly  in 
proportion  to  its  size  but  producing  a  greater  total  yield  than  when 
grown  on  light,  sandy  soils. 

Most  Favorable  Soils  for  Cotton. — The  soils  which  most  often 
produce  successful  crops  of  cotton  are  medium  grades  of  loam,  con- 
taining 25  or  30  per  cent  of  clay  and  about  40  per  cent  of  silt. 
Such  soils  are  porous,  easily  drained,  and  early  warmed  in  the 
spring.  They  also  are  retentive  of  moisture,  maintaining  on  the 
average  10  or  12  per  cent  of  moisture  throughout  a  growing  season 
of  a  normal  climatic  tendency.  The  loams  sometimes  do  not  pro- 
duce as.  large  yields  as  do  bottom-lands  and  the  heavier  clay  soils, 
but  their  productiveness  is  more  certain ;  they  have  a  tendency  to 
produce  on  the  average  a  good  crop  under  a  wide  variation  in  sea- 
sons, while  the  productiveness  of  other  soils  is  more  dependent  upon 
seasonal  fitness.  It  is  not  unusual,  in  wet  seasons,  for  a  cotton  crop 
grown  on  a  heavy  clay  or  rich  bottom  soil  to  be  so  badly  injured  by 
the  ravages  of  diseases  and  insects  as  to  be  accounted  a  failure,  or  to 
make  such  a  rank  vegetative  growth  that  the  fiber  will  not  mature 
before  the  frosts  of  autumn. 

Fertility  of  Cotton  Soils. — In  certain  parts  of  the  cotton  belt,  the 
cotton  plant  does  not  require  for  its  most  successful  development  an 
extremely  fertile  soil,  such  as  is  needed  for  the  highest  production  of 
corn.  A  soil  of  medium  fertility  which  will  not  cause  the  plant  to 
make  an  excessive  vegetative  growth,  and  thus  delay  its  maturity, 
is  best  for  the  production  of  cotton  in  the  northern  and  central  areas. 
Here,  in  the  relatively  short  growing  season,  the  timely  maturation 
of  the  plant  has  a  very  important  relation  to  a  successful  crop,  and 


FERTILIZERS  221 

larger  total  yields  will  usually  result  from  soils  which  are  sufficiently 
fertile  to  produce  a  well-matured  crop  but  which  are  not  rich  enough 
to  prolong  past  a  normal  maturing  period  the  active  growth  of  the 
plant. 

In  the  northern  area  of  the  cotton  belt  it  is  sometimes  better 
even  to  balance  a  deficiency  in  soil  fertility  by  the  addition  of  com- 
mercial fertilizer  than  to  choose  a  rich,  moist  bottom-land  which 
will  produce  a  heavy  vegetative  growth  at  the  expense  of  a  matured 
fruitage. 

In  the  southern  area,  however,  the  most  fertile  soils  are  prefer- 
able, for  here  the  growing  season  is  of  a  sufficient  length  to  allow  the 
maturation  of  a  larger  proportion  of  the  fruit  than  is  usually  pos- 
sible in  the  shorter  season  of  the  more  northerly  area.  With  the 
advantage  of  a  longer  growing  season,  during  which  most  of  the 
fruit  set  by  the  plant  is  matured,  the  total  yield  is  somewhat  pro- 
portional to  the  degree  of  soil  fertility. 

Soils  for  Sea  Island  Cotton. — The  Sea  Island  cotton,  unlike  the 
upland  variety,  is  not  adapted  to  widely  different  soils.  It  is  best 
suited  by  light,  fine,  sandy  soils,  which  contain  but  small  propor- 
tions of  clay  and  silt.  Soils  of  this  character  retain  little  moisture, 
and  in  that  respect  they  are  quite  different  from  the  best  type  of 
soils  adapted  to  the  upland  cotton.  In  respect  to  its  need  of  soil 
fertility,  however,  Sea  Island  cotton  is  like  the  upland  variety.  It 
is  best  adapted  to  soils  of  medium  fertility  which  tend  to  produce  a 
well-matured  crop  rather  than  to  stimulate  an  extremely  large 
vegetative  growth. 

Fertilizers. — The  enormous  increase  since  1865  in  the  produc- 
tion of  cotton  in  the  United  States  is  due  chiefly  to  the  use  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  With  the  aid  of  fertilizers  a  large  area  of  de- 
pleted soils  in  the  cotton  belt  has  been  returned  to  a  state  of 
profitable  productiveness. 

Effect  of  Fertilizers.— When  used  for  the  production  of  cotton, 
the  effect  of  fertilizers  is  twofold — (1)  they  increase  the  growth 
of  the  plant,  and  (2)  they  stimulate  the  plant  to  an  early  ma- 
turity. 

By  the  influence  of  fertilizers  in  shortening  the  period  of  active 
growth  of  the  plant,  the  northern  limit  of  the  area  in  which  cotton 


222  COTTON  CULTURE 

is  profitably  cultivated  has  been  considerably  extended.  It  is  in 
the  northern  section  of  the  cotton  belt  that  the  use  of  fertilizers  is 
relatively  greatest. 

Need  of  Fertilizer  for  the  Cotton  Plant. — The  cotton  plant  makes 
only  a  slight  draft  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  It  is  a  delicate  feeder, 
being  in  this  respect  much  like  wheat.  The  production  of  a  bale  of 
cotton  weighing  500  pounds  removes  from  the  soil  only  about  as 
much  plant  food  as  is  contained  in  the  grain  alone  of  a  40  bushel 
crop  of  corn  or  of  a  60  bushel  crop  of  oats.  Accordingly,  a  given 
amount  of  plant  food,  when  transmuted  into  cotton,  produces  a 
crop  twice  or  three  times  as  valuable  as  when  transmuted  into  corn 
or  oats. 

But  while  the  cotton  plant  uses  only  a  small  amount  of  plant 
food,  it  requires  this  in  a  readily  available  form.  It  has  not  an 
extensive  and  vigorous  root  system  like  that  of  corn  or  of  oats,  and 
hence  it  has  not  like  these  plants  the  power  to  draw  heavily  from 
the  soil.  A  part  of  its  food  must,  therefore,  be  artificially  supplied 
in  an  easily  soluble  form. 

The  Use  of  Commercial  Fertilizers. — The  cotton  plant  responds 
promptly  to  fertilization  and,  except  on  extremely  poor  sandy  soils  or 
very  rich  bottom  lands,  a  judicious  use  of  commercial  fertilizer  is 
usually  profitable.  Indeed,  on  upland  soils  of  average  fertility  a 
crop  of  cotton  grown  without  the  aid  of  fertilizer,  received  either  as 
a  direct  application  or  as  a  residue  from  an  application  to  some 
other  crop,  will  not  usually  give  a  profitable  return  for  the  time  and 
money  expended  in  its  production. 

Previous  Treatment  of  the  Land. — As  with  most  other  crops, 
the  profit  resulting  from  the  fertilization  of  cotton  is  increased  if  the 
soil  has  previously  been  brought  to  a  good  condition  of  tilth  and  con- 
tains a  store  of  organic  matter  left  by  the  growth  of  leguminous  or 
other  green  manuring  plants. 

Phosphoric  Acid. — Extensive  investigations  by  southern  Ex- 
periment Stations  have  shown  conclusively  that  phosphoric  acid  in 
some  form  should  be  used  liberally  in  the  production  of  cotton.  It 
causes  a  larger  increase  in  yield  and  it  returns  a  greater  profit  from 
the  money  invested  than  any  other  element  of  plant  food.  An 


FERTILIZERS  223 

application  of  phosphoric  acid  is  generally  more  profitable  when  the 
material  is  in  a  readily  available  form,  hence  as  a  cotton  fertilizer 
acid  phosphate  'is  preferable  to  the  less  soluble  rock  phosphate,  or 
the  Thomas  phosphate,  although  the  availability  of  the  latter  ma- 
terials is  increased  by  mixing  or  composting  them  with  rotting 
organic  matter,  such  as  stable  manure. 

Nitrogen. — Although  nitrogen  usually  causes  an  increase  in  the 
yield  of  cotton,  it  is  the  most  expensive  element  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizer and  its  use  is  not  always  profitable.  Nitrogenous  fertilizers 
must  therefore  be  used  judiciously  or  their  actual  cost  may  not  be 
returned  in  the  increased  yield  which  they  produce.  Generally 
speaking,  the  soils  to  which  nitrogen  is  applied  with  profit  are  those 
of  a  medium  natural  fertility.  An  application  of  nitrogen  to  ex- 
tremely poor  sandy  soils  is  wasteful,  for  the  reason  that  fertilizer 
alone  is  not  sufficient  to  raise  the  productivity  of  such  soils  to  a 
profitable  standard.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rich  bottom-lands  are 
so  fertile  that  nitrogen  is  not  needed,  and  its  addition  will  usually  not 
result  in  a  profitable  increase  of  the  crop. 

Sources  of  Nitrogen. — The  organic  forms  of  nitrogen,  such  as 
dried  blood  and  cottonseed  meal,  supply  nitrogen  more  cheaply 
than  do  the  inorganic  forms — nitrate  of  soda  and  ammonium 
sulfate.  But  by  far  the  most  inexpensive  and  profitable  source  of 
nitrogen  for  the  cotton  crop  is  the  organic  matter  added  to  the  soil 
by  the  growth  of  leguminous  crops — cow  peas,  soy  beans,  velvet  beans, 
clovers,  and  vetches.  Indeed,  the  only  rational  system  of  cotton 
farming  is  one  which  includes  the  frequent  production  of  a 
leguminous  crop  in  its  scheme  of  crop  rotation,  for  this  system  not 
only  adds  in  an  inexpensive  form  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  but  it  also  tends 
to  conserve  the  soil's  natural  store  of  nitrogen. 

Potash. — The  southern  soils  are  well  supplied  with  potash  and 
the  cotton  crop  requires  but  small  additional  amounts  of  this  ele- 
ment. Potash  is  profitable  only  when  combined  with  nitrogen  and 
phosphoric  acid,  and  then  only  in  small  amounts.  It  has  at  times 
been  found  useful  in  counteracting  or  preventing  black  rust,  a 
disease  of  cotton. 

Sources  of  Potash. — The  commercial  fertilizers  used  as  sources 


224  COTTON  CULTURE 

of  potash  are  kainit,  muriate  and  sulfate  of  potash.  Muriate  of 
potash  will  usually  furnish  the  potash  element  more  cheaply  than  it 
can  be  purchased  in  either  sulfate  of  potash  or  kainit. 

Lime. — Lime,  when  used  alone,  has  little  or  no  effect  on  the 
growth  of  cotton,  unless  the  soil  is  in  a  very  poor  physical  condition 
and  has  a  specific  need  for  this  material.  However,  when  it  is 
applied  with  a  complete  fertilizer  the  action  of  lime  in  rendering 
more  available  the  other  constituents  may  at  times  make  profitable 
its  use. 

Combination  of  Fertilizers. — The  cotton  plant  requires  a  bal- 
anced food.  Hence  the  fertilizing  elements  are  more  efficient  when 
combined  in  a  complete  fertilizer ;  that  is,  one  containing  balanced 
proportions  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  Of  these 
elements,  phosphoric  acid  is  the  most  important  and  controls  the 
effectiveness  of  the  others. 

Proportions  of  the  Fertilizing  Elements. — In  the  total  amount 
of  fertilizer  the  relative  proportions  which  should  be  used  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  nitrogen,  and  potash,  vary  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
soil.  However,  the  usual  proportions  of  these  elements,  in  a  com- 
plete fertilizer  for  cotton,  are  approximately,  phosphoric  acid  2%, 
nitrogen  1,  potash  y2. 

Amount  of  Fertilizer. — The  amount  of  fertilizer  which  may 
profitably  be  applied  to  cotton  depends  chiefly  upon  the  character 
and  previous  treatment  of  the  soil,  and  to  some  extent  upon  the 
season.  On  soils  of  an  average  fertility,  400  to  600  pounds  of  a 
complete  fertilizer  is  usually  the  most  profitable  amount,  but  to 
include  soils  of  all  classes  the  limits  of  the  application  may  at  times 
range  from  200  to  1000  pounds. 

Method  of  Applying  Fertilizer. — The  general  results  of  experi- 
ments in  the  methods  of  applying  fertilizers  to  cotton  show  clearly 
that  drilling  is  far  more  efficient  than  broadcasting,  especially  if 
small  amounts  of  fertilizer  are  used.  Fertilizers  are  drilled  either 
by  hand,  using  for  the  purpose  a  long  funnel  or  "guano  horn',"  or  by 
a  fertilizer  distributor,  which  drills  and  covers  the  material  in  a 
single  operation.  They  are  usually  distributed  at  a  depth  of  3  to  4 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil. 


TIME  OF  PLOWING  225 

Time  of  Applying  Fertilizer. — The  usual  time  of  application  is 
at  planting,  although  for  light,  sandy  soils,  from  which  the  fertilizer 
may  partly  leach  during  heavy,  protracted  rains,  a  portion  may  be 
reserved  for  a  second  application  at  about  the  time  the  plant  begins 
to  set  its  fruit. 

The  Culture  of  Cotton. — The  cultural  methods  for  cotton,  like 
those  for  any  crop,  are  based  on  the  fundamental  principles  of 
adaptation  and  conservation. 

In  so  far  as  the  methods  of  culture  can  modify  the  soil,  they 
must  be  aimed  to  adapt  it  to  the  needs  of  the  plant ;  the  soil  must  be 
so  managed  as  to  fulfil  the  cultural  requirements  of  the  particular 
crop  to  be  grown.  At  the  same  time  the  welfare  of  the  soil  itself 
must  not  be  neglected.  Soil  management  in  the  culture  of  any 
crop  must  include  the  principle  of  conserving  the  natural  resources 
of  the  land  and  of  leaving  it  in  a  good  physical  condition  for  the 
growth  of  succeeding  crops. 

Disposal  of  Old  Stalks. — If  cotton  has  been  the  preceding 
crop,  and  has  made  a  rank,  heavy  growth,  the  first  step  in  the 
preparation  of  the  field  is  in  so  disposing  of  the  old  stalks  that  they 
may  be  plowed  into  the  soil.  They  may  be  cut  down  by  a  specially 
designed  stalk-cutter,  a  triangular  frame  which  has  cutting  edges 
on  two  sides  and  is  drawn  between  the  rows  of  stalks ;  or  they  may 
be  broken  or  flattened  by  dragging  across  them  with  a  heavy  drag, 
or  by  beating  them  with  sticks.  This  may  be  done  at  any  time 
during  the  winter  months. 

Cotton  stalks  should  never  be  burned  or  otherwise  removed  from 
the  soil,  unless  as  a  means  of  checking  the  spread  of  insects  or  dis- 
eases. They  soon  decay  and  add  to  the  soil  much  valuable  organic 
matter,  which  is  a  principal  element  of  soil  fertility. 

Time  of  Plowing. — -Land  for  the  growth  of  cotton  is  usually 
plowed  in  February  or  in  March,  depending  upon  its  climatic  loca- 
tion. Within  the  limits  of  the  season,  the  time  of  plowing  is  regu- 
lated somewhat  by  a  consideration  for  the  growth  of  the  cover 
crop,  if  such  be  on  the  land,  and  by  the  amount  of  water  in  the 
soil.  A  properly  drained  soil  can  be  plowed  much  earlier  than  one 
15 


226  COTTON  CULTURE 

which  retains  a  considerable  amount  of  free  water  from  the  rains  of 
winter. 

Method  of  Plowing. — The  best  method  of  preparing  the  soil 
for  cotton  is  first  to  plow  or  break  the  land  level ;  that  is,  to  turn  all 
the  furrow  slices  in  the  same  direction.  Although  it  is  a  common 
custom  in  many  sections  to  at  once  ridge  or  bed  the  land  for  planting 
by  throwing  together  for  each  ridge  usually  four  furrow-slices,  a 
much  better  condition  of  the  soil  is  reached  if  this  operation  is  sub- 
sequent to  that  of  a  thorough  level  plowing. 

The  efficiency  of  the  first  plowing  is  much  increased  if  the  furrow- 
slices  are  cut  narrow  and  even  and  are  thrown  well  together. 

Depth  of  Plowing. — The  depth  to  which  cotton  lands  should  be 
plowed  depends  somewhat  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the 
amount  of  vegetable  matter  which  is  to  be  turned  under.  Heavy 
clay  or  bottom-land  soils  should  be  broken  to  a  depth  of  at  least  8 
inches.  If  the  soil  is  very  stiff  and  in  poor  physical  condition,  plow- 
ing to  a  depth  of  10  inches  will  insure  a  better  preparation.  On 
sandy  and  loamy  soils  a  more  shallow  plowing  of  6  or  8  inches  in 
depth  is  usually  sufficient.  These  types  of  soils  are  usually  in  a 
better  physical  condition  and  are  more  readily  brought  to  a  state  of 
good  tilth  than  are  soils  of  a  marked  clayey  or  silty  character. 

The  depth  of  the  soil  regulates  to  a  considerable  extent  the  quan- 
tity of  moisture  which  will  be  retained  after  a  season  of  rains.  It 
is  therefore  of  great  importance  that  the  land  be  deeply  and  thor- 
oughly broken  by  the  preparatory  process. 

Disking  and  Harrowing.. — It  is  often  best  after  plowing  to 
thoroughly  disk  and  to  harrow  the  land,  thereby  cutting  and  break- 
ing the  larger  clods  left  by  the  plow.  The  heavier  clay  soils  may 
require  both  of  these  additional  treatments  before  they  are  in  a 
satisfactory  condition,  but  for  the  sandy  and  loamy  soils  the  single 
process  of  harrowing  is  usually  sufficient. 

Importance  of  Thorough  Preparation. — A  land  well  plowed 
is  the  foundation  for  a  good  crop  of  cotton.  The  surface  vegetable 
matter  is  more  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil,  and  its  decay 
and  consequently  its  addition  to  soil  fertility  is  thereby  hastened ;  the 
soil  is  made  mellow  and  fit  for  planting;  the  moisture  retentiveness 


LEVEL  CULTURE  VS.  JUDGE  CULTURE        227 

of  the  soil  is  increased ;  and,  finally,  by  thoroughly  breaking  and  pul- 
verizing the  soil  in  its  early  preparation,  all  subsequent  tillage  of  the 
cotton  crop  is  made  easier. 

Planting  on  Ridges  or  Beds. — It  is  the  custom  in  most  cotton- 
growing  sections  to  plant  the  cotton  crop  on  ridges  or  beds,  which 
are  usually  three  to  four  feet  wide  and  several  inches  high.  Each 
ridge  is  formed  by  throwing  together  four  to  six  furrow-slices,  the 
first  two  forming  the  "  list "  and  the  succeeding  furrows  completing 
the  ridge  or  bed.  If  commercial  fertilizer  is  to  be  used,  a  furrow  is 
first  run  to  contain  the  fertilizer  over  which  the  ridge  is  later  formed. 
Planting  may  be  done  on  the  list  formed  by  the  first  two  furrows, 
thus  leaving  on  each  side  an  unplowed  strip  or  middle  later  to  be 
thrown  or  "  bursted  "  toward  the  list ;  or  the  ridge  may  be  completed 
at  the  first  operation,  thus  leaving  a  clean  middle. 

Planting  Level. — A  more  simple  method  of  planting  is  one 
which  omits  ridging  and  places  the  seed  in  furrows  which  are  run 
level  with  the  adjacent  surface  by  a  single  trip  of  a  shallow  plow  of 
either  the  mould-board  or  bull-tongue  type. 

Level  Culture  vs.  Ridge  Culture. — The  chief  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  the  level  furrow  and  ridge  methods  of  culture  may 
briefly  be  summarized: 

Ridge  culture. 
Advantages : 

(1)  On  wet  lands,  ridges  provide  somewhat  a  system  of 
drainage. 

(2)  On  lands  subject  to  washings,  ridges,  if  run  cross- 
wise to  the  slope  of  the  land,  check  the  removal  of  soil. 

Disadvantages : 

(1)  Ridges  cause  a  greater  evaporation  of  soil  moisture 
than  do  the  level  furrows,  since  they  expose  a  larger  surface. 

(2)  They  require  more  labor  in  their  formation  than  do 
level  furrows. 

(3)  They  are   less   convenient   than   level   furrows   to 
cultivate. 

Although  in  most  sections  of  the  cotton  belt  the  ridge-culture 


228  COTTON  CULTURE 

method  is  the  one  most  commonly  used,  the  level-furrow  method  is 
rapidly  growing  in  favor. 

Date  of  Planting. — In  order  to  insure  the  longest  possible 
growing  period  for  the  crop,  cotton  should  be  planted  as  early  as  the 
climatic  restrictions  of  the  locality  will  permit.  The  general  rule  is 
to  begin  planting  within  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  average  date  of 
the  last  killing  frost.  The  following  table  by  Shepperson  gives  the 
approximate  dates  when  cotton  planting  begins  and  ends  in  the 
southern  States: 


States 
North  Carolina 

Usual  date  to  begin 
planting 

April     15 

Usual  date  to  finish 
planting 

May    10 

South  Carolina   .  .  .7.  . 
Georgia   

April     15 
April     10 

May     7 
May     1 

Florida    

April       1 

May     1 

Alabama   

.    .  .     April       5 

May  10 

Mississippi 

April       5 

May  10 

Louisiana 

April       1 

May  10 

Texas 

March  15 

May  10 

Arkansas    

April     15 

May  15 

Tennessee    . 

.   Anril     15 

Mav  15 

The  Process  of  Planting. — Cotton  planting  on  a  large  or  even  a 
moderate  scale  is  done  by  a  specially  designed  implement,  the  cotton- 
planter,  which  opens  the  furrow,  drops  and  covers  the  seed,  all  at  one 
trip.  The  ordinary  planter  seeds  but  a  single  row  at  once,  but  there 
are  other  types  which  seed  two  rows,  and  still  others,  which  having  an 
attachment  for  drilling  fertilizers,  perform  at  one  operation  the 
processes  of  fertilizing  and  seeding. 

Quantity  of  Seed. — Cotton  is  usually  planted  at  the  rate  of  4  to 
8  pecks  of  seed  per  acre,  but  of  this  amount  only  a  relatively  small 
number  actually  develop  into  mature  plants.  If  each  cotton  seed 
of  a  bushel  containing  approximately  140,000  seeds  were  to  become 
a  mature  plant,  there  would  'be  a  sufficient  number  of  plants  to  pro- 
vide a  stand  for  15  or  16  acres.  However,  in  order  to  secure  a  good 
stand  of  the  crop  it  is  necessary  to  plant  an  excessive  amount  of 
seed.  Many  of  the  seeds  fail  to  germinate  and  a  large  number  of 
those  which  actually  germinate  do  not  survive,  although  there  is 
still  left  for  the  thinning  process  a  far  greater  number  of  vigorous 
young  plants  than  are  needed  for  a  stand. 

Thinning  or  Chopping. — The  crop  is  thinned  or  "  chopped  "  to 


CULTIVATION  229 

the  desired  stand  when  the  plants  are  three  to  four  weeks  old,  or 
just  after  the  third  or  fourth  leaf  has  appeared.  The  thinning  is 
done  with  hand-hoes,  cutting  away  the  superfluous  plants  and  at  the 
same  time  clearing  the  rows  of  grass  and  weeds. 

Spacing  of  the  Plants. — Cotton  rows  are  spaced  at  from  3  to  5 
feet,  and  in  the  row  the  plants  are  usually  left  12  to  20  inches  apart. 
In  thinning  the  plants  to  a  stand  it  is  best  to  leave  at  least  two  plants 
in  each  hill  in  order  to  provide  against  further  loss. 

The  area  provided  for  the  growth  of  each  plant  is  regulated  ac- 
cording to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  type  of  the  plant.  Cotton, 
unlike  corn,  is  crowded  on  poor  land  and  spaced  farther  apart  on 
rich  land.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  cotton  is  a  wide-branching 
plant  and  on  rich  land  requires  much  space  for  the  lateral  growth  of 
its  branches.  By  reason  of  their  shorter  branches  the  cluster  types 
of  cotton  require  less  space  in  which  to  fully  develop  than  do  the 
wider  branching  types. 

Cultivation. — The  cotton  plant  is  the  least  vigorous  of  all  the 
important  field  plants  and  throughout  its  active  growing  period  the 
cleanest  and  most  careful  cultivation  is  necessary  to  insure  a  suc- 
cessful crop.  From  the  appearance  of  the  third  or  fourth  leaf  to  the 
formation  of  the  bolls,  the  crop  should  frequently  be  cultivated. 

Principles  of  Cultivation. — The  main  underlying  principle  in 
cultivating  cotton  is  the  removal  of  competitive  plants,  and  hence 
the  destruction  of  grass  and  weeds  is  the  chief  purpose  of  each  tillage 
operation.  While  by  cultivation  it  is  important  also  to  conserve 
the  soil,  moisture  and  to  cause  a  fine  mechanical  separation  of  the 
soil  particles,  these  desirable  conditions  are  incidentally  fulfilled 
by  thorough  cultivation  throughout  the  season  for  the  destruction 
of  grass  and  weeds. 

Methods  of  Cultivation. — There  is  no  fixed  method  of  cultivating 
cotton.  It  varies  according  to  the  method  of  planting  and  to  some 
extent  upon  the  character  of  the  soil.  A  cotton  crop  planted  on 
ridges  is  cultivated  somewhat  differently  from  one  planted  in  level 
furrows.  Ridge-culture  requires  a  greater  use  of  shallow  turn- 
plows  and  scrapes,  or  "  sweeps,"  the  latter  implement  being  par- 
ticularly effective  on  light  soils.  However,  under  both  methods  of 


230  COTTON  CULTURE 

planting  most  of  the  cultivating  is  usually  done  with  the  ordinary 
frame  cultivator,  such  as  is  used  for  cultivating  corn  and  other 
crops.  There  is  also  often  required  throughout  the  season  consider- 
able weeding  with  hand-hoes,  but  the  necessity  for  this  is  greatly 
lessened  by  the  timely  use  of  horse-implements. 

Frequency  of  Cultivation. — The  number  of  cultivations  required 
to  keep  the  crop  clean  throughout  its  growing  period  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  season  and  of  the  soil,  and  upon  the  timeliness 
and  thoroughness  of  each  tillage  operation.  Usually,  a  cultivation 
at  each  10  day  period,  or  soon  after  each  rain,  will  be  sufficient  to 


FIG.  85. — Cultivating  the  corn  field  with  a  weeder  before  the  crop  has  come  up.    A  similar 
implement  is  very  useful  for  the  early  cultivation  of  cotton. 

keep  the  crop  free  of  grass  and  weeds  and  to  preserve  a  well-mulched 
soil  surface.  However,  if  the  rainfall  is  excessive,  and  the  land 
extremely  fertile,  giving  rise  to  abundant  growths  of  weeds  and 
grass,  more  frequent  cultivation  will  be  necessary. 

Depth  of  Cultivation. — Usually,  the  depth  of  cultivation  is  1  or  2 
inches,  although  if  a  heavy  crust  is  allowed  to  form  a  deeper  tillage 
is  required  to  break  and  mulch  the  surface. 

Economy  in  Cultivation. — The  most  economical  method  of  culti- 
vating cotton  is  one  which  includes  the  use  of  the  weeder,  a  light, 
long-toothed  harrow,  such  as  is  sometimes  used  for  the  cultivation  of 
corn  (Fig.  85),  and  the  use  of  two-row  riding  cultivators  (Fig.  86). 


HARVESTING 


231 


When  the  plants  are  only  a  few  inches  high,  the  weeder  may  be  run 
across  the  rows,  .breaking  the  soil  to  a  shallow  depth  and  thereby 
checking  the  early  growth  of  grass  and  weeds.  At  the  same  time  the 
soil  surface  is  prevented  from  baking  and  cracking,  with  a  consequent 
loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation.  One  or  more  cultivations  with  the 
weeder  before  the  crop  is  thinned  to  a  stand  will  greatly  lessen  the 
future  growth  of  grass  and  weeds,  and  will  therefore  reduce  the 
amount  of  hoe-chopping  necessary  at  the  time  of  thinning.  After 


Courtesy  Planet  Jr.  Company 

FIG.  86. — The  use  of  two-row  riding  cultivators — the  most  economical  method  of  cultivat- 
ing large  fields  of  cotton. 

thinning,  the  most  economical  cultivation  is  by  two-row  riding  culti- 
vators, if  the  area  of  the  crop  is  large  enough  to  justify  their  use ; 
otherwise,  the  use  of  single-row  cultivators  or  sweeps  is  more 
economical  (Fig.  87). 

By  the  early  use  of  the  weeder,  and  by  timely  and  thorough 
subsequent  tillage  with  a  two-row  riding  cultivator,  the  frequency  of 
cultivation  and  the  cost  of  each  operation  may  be  much  reduced. 

Harvesting. — From  the  field  to  the  market  the  cotton  crop 
passes  through  three  processes — picking,  ginning,  baling. 

Picking. — Cotton  picking  is  the  most  expensive  operation  con- 


232 


COTTON  CULTURE 


nected  with  the  production  of  the  crop.  It  begins  late  in  August  or 
early  in  September  and  sometimes  extends  far  into  the  winter, 
although  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is  usually  gathered  by  the  middle  of 
November.  The  cost  of  picking  varies  from  50  to  75  cents  per  100 
pounds  of  seed-cotton;  this  being  equivalent  to  about  ll/2  to  4!/4 
cents  per  pound  of  lint.  The  amount  of  seed-cotton  which  one  per- 


Courtesy  Planet  Jr.  Company 

FIG.  87. — Cotton  cultivation  with  a  single-row  cultivator  which  may  be  equipped  with 
both  sweeps  and  hoes. 

son  can  pick  in  a  day  varies  usually  from  100  to  500  pounds,  depend- 
ing on  the  skill  of  the  laborer  and  the  yield  of  the  plants. 

Cotton  must  be  gathered  by  hand,  as  no  mechanical  cotton-picker 
has  yet  been  invented  which  gives  satisfactory  practical  results. 

Ginning  and  Baling. — A  complete  ginning  outfit  consists  of  an 
elevator,  usually  of  the  suction  type,  for  removing  the  seed-cotton 
from  the  wagon  to  the  gin,  of  one  or  more  gins  for  tearing  the  lint 
from  the  seeds,  and  of  a  baling-press  where  the  ginned  lint  is  packed 


MARKETING  THE  CROP  233 

into  bales  and  covered  with  a  coarse  bagging.  The  cost  of  the  ginning 
and  baling  processes  is  usually  a  dollar  to  a  dollar  and  a  half  per 
bale.  The  bales  of  lint  each  usually  weigh  about  500  pounds.  When 
to  be  shipped  long  distances,  particularly  transatlantic  shipment,  the 
bales  are  recompressed  into  smaller  bulk. 

Marketing  the  Crop. — The  largest  part  of  the  cotton  crop  is 
sold  to  local  buyers,  usually  storekeepers.  However,  the  larger 
farmers  may  at  times  consign  their  crop  directly  to  cotton  merchants 
in  the  larger  cotton  markets. 

Commercial  Grades  of  Cotton. — The  selling  price  of  cotton  varies 
within  narrow  limits  according  to  the  grade  or  quality  of  the  lint. 
Cotton  when  sold  by  farmers  is  usually  graded  by  the  buyer,  although 
in  all  later  transactions  between  business  firms  both  parties  to  the 
sale  decide  on  the  quality  of  the  staple. 

The  points  to  be  observed  in  grading  cotton  are  the  following: 

(1)  Amount  of  sand  and  trash. 

(2)  Color  of  the  fiber. 

(3)  Percentage  of  immature  fibers. 

(4)  Length  and  strength  of  the  fiber. 

(5)  Dampness  of  the  fiber. 

On  the  basis  of  these  points,  the  relative  values  of  which  are 
somewhat  variable  in  different  markets,  the  seven  full  grades  of 
American  cotton  are  as  follows : 

(1)  Fair. 

(2)  Middling  fair. 

(3)  Good  middling. 

(4)  Middling. 

(5)  Low  middling. 

(6)  Good  ordinary. 

(7)  Ordinary. 

The  above  system  of  grading  is  sufficiently  refined  for  the  smaller 
markets,  but  the  larger  cotton  merchants  differentiate  also  to  the 
point  of  half  and  quarter  grades.  This  further  differentiation  is  de- 
termined by  dividing  each  full  grade  into  half  grades,  the  best  of 
which  has  the  prefix  "  strict/'  and  by  subdividing  the  half  grades 
into  quarter  grades,  to  which  are  given  the  prefixes  "fully"  arid 


234  COTTON  CULTURE 

"  barely."     Thus  the  grade  "  middling  "  would  finally  be  classified 
as  strict  middling,  fully  middling,  middling,  barely  middling. 

The  greater  part  of  the  upland  cotton  is  classified  according  to 
the  following  grades  which  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  value : 

(1)  Strict  good  middling. 

(2)  Good  middling. 

(3)  Strict  middling. 

(4)  Middling. 

Destination  of  the  Crop. — Most  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  United 
States  ultimately  reaches  the  mills  of  New  England,  Canada,  and 
Europe.  The  larger  cotton  houses  in  the  American  trade  have 
direct  foreign  connections.  On  the  other  hand,  they  have  buyers 
at  many  of  the  small  towns  and  railroad  stations  of  their  district, 
and  thus  the  transfer  of  the  crop  from  the  farmer  to  the  foreign 
market  is  completed.  Although  about  one-half  of  the  American 
cotton  goods  is  manufactured  in  the  Carolinas  and  adjacent  States, 
by  far  the  largest  part  of  the  crop  is  shipped  as  raw  material  out  of 
the  section  in  which  it  is  produced. 

Insect  Enemies  of  Cotton. — Among  the  insects  which  damage 
the  cotton  crop  the  most  important  are  the  Mexican  boll-weevil  and 
the  boll-worm.  Others  are  the  nematode  worm,  the  cutworm,  the 
cowpea  pod-weevil,  the  red  spiders,  plant  lice  and  caterpillars. 

The  Mexican  Boll-weevil  (Anthonomus  grandis). — The  boll- 
weevil  is  the  most  destructive  of  all  insects  to  American  cotton.  In 
the  southwest  portion  of  the  cotton  belt,  this  insect  at  times  reduces 
the  crop  by  at  least  50  per  cent.  The  weevil  is  small,  usually  not 
more  than  %  of  an  .inch  in  length,  and  dark  brown  or  black.  Its 
attacks  are  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  squares  and  bolls,  which 
are  eaten  from  without  by  the  mature  weevil  and  from  within  by  the 
larvaB. 

Preventive  Measures. — The  most  effective  practical  measures  of 
combating  the  boll-weevil  are  the  following : 

( 1 )  Burning  the  old  cotton  stalks  and  other  litter  which  harbor 
the  insects  through  the  winter. 

(2)  Forcing  the  crop  to  an  early  maturity,  thus  producing  a 
large  number  of  bolls  before  the  weevils  can  attack. 


DISEASES  OF  COTTON  235 

(3)  Eotating  crops,  by  which  means  the  insect  is  deprived  of  its 
food,  since  it  eats  no  other  widely  grown  plant  but  cotton. 

(4)  Fumigating  the  seed  in  order  to  prevent  the  introduction  of 
the  pest  at  planting. 

The  Boll-worm  (Heliothis  obsoleta). — The  boll-worm  is  more 
widely  distributed  than  the  boll-weevil,  although  it  is  less  destructive. 
It  is  a  small,  blue-green  worm,  with  spots  and  black  stripes  on  its 
back.  It  is  hatched  from  the  eggs  of  a  moth.  Like  the  boll-weevil, 
the  boll-worm  attacks  chiefly  the  squares  and  tender  young  bolls. 

Preventive  Measures. — A  trap-crop  is  the  most  widely  used  means 
of  checking  the  attacks  of  the  boll-worm  upon  cotton.  Such  a  crop 
is  one  upon  which  the  moths  prefer  to  deposit  their  eggs.  Their 
favorite  depository  is  the  fresh  silks  of  corn,  and  hence  corn,  planted 
in  strips  at  intervals  among  the  rows  of  cotton,  is  the  crop  generally 
used  as  a  trap.  The  corn  should  be  planted  late  in  order  that  it 
may  be  in  silk  at  about  the  time  the  cotton  plant  sets  its  fruit. 

The  worms  may  be  killed  when  young  by  spraying  or  dusting  the 
plants  with  arsenical  poisons.  This  is  an  effective  killing  method, 
but  its  use  on  an  extensive  scale  is  not  practicable. 

Diseases  of  Cotton. — The  most  serious  diseases  of  cotton  are 
boll-rot  (anthracncse) ,  cotton  wilt,  or  black  rot,  and  cotton  rust, 
or  black  rust.  Others  are  root-rot,  root-knot,  angular  leaf-spot,  leaf- 
blight,  sore  shin,  and  mildew. 

Boll-rot. — This  disease  appears  as  grayish  or  pinkish  spots  on  the 
immature  bolls.  Eventually  the  entire  contents  of  the  bolls  may  be 
rotted  out. 

Boll-rot  is  most  virulent  during  wet  seasons  and  at  such  times  it 
may  seriously  damage  the  crop.  It  makes  little  progress  in  dry 
weather,  and  therefore  an  unfavorable  condition  for  its  development 
is  created  by  spacing  the  plants  widely,  so  that  the  maximum  amount 
of  sunshine  will  be  admitted  to  the  bolls.  Certain  varieties  of  cotton 
are  partially  resistant  to  boll-rot  and  such  may  be  used  to  advantage 
in  sections  where  the  disease  is  widely  prevalent.  The  selection  of 
the  seed  of  un infected  plants  is  also  recommended  as  a  means  of 
checking  the  spread  of  this  disease. 

Cotton  Wilt. — Cotton  wilt  comes  from  the  soil.     It  is  a  thread- 


236  COTTON  CULTURE 

like  fungus  growth,  which  enters  the  plant  through  the  roots  and 
interferes  with  the  upward  passage  of  water  to  the  stems.  It  may 
attack  the  plant  at  any  time  after  the  leafing-out  stage,  but  the 
height  of  its  virulence  is  reached  after  the  bolls  have  formed.  The 
disease  is  indicated  by  a  sudden  wilting  of  the  plants  or  by  their 
dwarfed  appearance.  In  either  case  the  plants  may  shed  their 
leaves  and  die,  or  may  live  in  an  unthrifty  condition. 

Wilt  can  only  be  controlled  by  burning  infested  plants,  and  by  a 
rotation  of  crops  through  which  cotton  is  kept  from  the  land  for 
three  or  four  years. 

Cotton  Rust. — The  black  rust  of  cotton  is  perhaps  the  most  de- 
structive and  widely  distributed  disease  of  the  plant.  It  is  a  fungous 
disease  which  causes  the  leaves  to  become  yellow  or  blackened  and  to 
fall  from  the  branches.  The  development  and  maturing  of  the  bolls 
is  thus  prevented  and  the  crop  is  often  seriously  damaged. 

On  light  sandy  soils,  the  use  of  80  to  100  pounds  of  kainit,  which 
may  be  applied  with  other  fertilizers,  has  been  found  a  remedy  for 
black  rust.  Under  this  treatment  the  plant  retains  its  foliage  until 
the  bolls  have  matured. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

( 1 )  Remove  the  bracts  and  petals  of  a  cotton  flower  and  make  a  draw- 
ing showing  the  stamens  and  stigmas.     Why  do  cotton  flowers  so  readily 
cross-pollinate? 

(2)  Compare  the  bolls  of  a  short-staple  variety  with  those  of  a  long- 
staple  va'riety.     Make   an   outline   drawing  of   a   boll   from   each   variety, 
showing  the  difference  in  their  form.     Compare  the  number  of  bracts  with 
the  number  of  cells,  or  compartments,  in  the  boll.     Are  they  equal? 

(3)  Straighten  from  the  seed  the  fiber  of  a  short-staple  and  of  a  long- 
staple  variety    (see   Figs.   80   and   81).     Compare  the  length   of   the  two 
classes  of  fiber.     Pull  a  few  fibers  of  each  class;  twist  those  of  each  class 
into  a  string  and  note  their  comparative  breaking  strength. 

(4)  If  microscopes  are  at  hand,  observe  the  three  classes  of  fibers — 
unripe,    half-ripe    and    ripe     (see    Fig.    82).      Note    the    flattened    twisted 
form  of  the  ripe  fibers.     Separate  a  few  fibers  of  each  class;  twist  each  lot 
into  a  string  and  compare  their  breaking  strength.     What  are  the  desirable 
qualities  of  the  fiber? 

(5)  Split  a  cotton  seed  and  observe  its  simple  structure.     What  are 
the  general  parts  of  a  cotton  seed? 

(6)  Compare,   as   to  the  proportion  of  opened  bolls,   a   plant  of  an 
early  maturing  variety  with  one  of  a  late  maturing  variety.     Observe,  as 
to   structure  and  outline,  the  general  difference   between  the  two  plants. 
Why  is  an  earlv  maturing  variety  of  cotton  especially  desirable? 

The  following  practices  are  suggested  to  accompany  this  chapter.  A 
part  or  all  of  them  may  be  included,  according  to  convenience. 


QUESTIONS  237 

(1)  Field  observations  of  such  cultural  operations  of  the  cotton  crop 
as   may   be    in   progress.      Written   descriptions   of   the   operation   may   be 
made,  with  particular  reference  to  the  following  points: 

(a)   Efficiency  of  the  operation. 

(&)  Amount  of  the  operation  performed  by  one  man  and  team  (single 
or  double)  in  one  day. 

(c)   Cost  per  acre  of  the  operation. 

(2)  A  visit  to  an  operating  ginnery,  by  which   the   students   should 
gather  a  general  knowledge  of  the  ginning  and  baling  processes.     A  brief 
report  may  be  made  of  the  operations. 

(3)    Instruction  by  an  expert  at  one  or  more  special  periods  in  sam- 
pling and  grading  cotton. 

(4)  A  study  of  the  appearance  of  plants  attacked  by  the  principal  dis- 
eases mentioned  in  this  chapter.  A  brief,  descriptive  report  should  be 
given. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  long  a  period  between  frosts  required  by  cotton? 

2.  How  is  production  affected  by  rainfall?     By  temperature? 

3.  Describe  the  climate  of  the  cotton  region. 

4.  How  is  the  appearance  of  the  cotton  plant  affected  by  different  soils? 

5.  Describe  the  best  cotton  soils. 

6.  Compare  value  of  rich  soils  in  north  and  south  portion  of  the  cotton 

region. 

7.  Compare  soil  adaptation  of  upland  and  Sea  Island  cotton. 

8.  State  the  effect  of  fertilizers  on  cotton. 

9.  Compare  the  value  of  fertilizers  on  cotton  and  corn. 

10.  State  the  importance  of  phosphate.     What  form  is  preferred? 

11.  State  the  effect  of  nitrogen.     Where  used  to  best  advantage? 

12.  How   is   nitrogen   best  supplied? 

13.  How  important  is  potash? 

14.  How  important  is  lime? 

15.  In   a    complete   fertilizer   what   proportion   of   the   elements    is   recom- 

mended? 

16.  What  amount  of  fertilizer  used?     How  is  fertilizer  best  applied? 

17.  Describe  the  preparation  of  land  for  cotton  as  to   (1)   disposal  of  old 

stalks;    (2)   time  of  plowing;    (3)  method  of  plowing;    (4)   depth  of 
plowing;    (5)    disking  and  harrowing. 

18.  Compare  planting  on  ridges  or  beds,  and  planting  on  level  land. 

19.  How  important  is  early   planting?     How   is  planting  usually  accom- 

plished? 

20.  What  is  best  amount  of  seed  to  use? 

21.  How  should  the  spacing  of  cotton  plants  be  regulated  on  good   and 

poor  soils? 

22.  Describe  the  best  methods  of  cotton  cultivation. 

23.  How  is  the  weeder  used  in  cotton  culture? 

24.  Describe  a  ginning  outfit. 

25.  State  points  in  grading  cotton. 

26.  What  are  the  grades? 

27.  Where  is  cotton  mostly  sold  abroad?    Where  in  the  United  States? 

28.  Describe  the  cotton  boll-weevil  and  measures  of  control. 

29.  Describe  the  boll-worm  and  measures  of  control. 

30.  Describe  the  following  diseases   and  measures   of  control:     (1)    Boll- 

rot,   (2)   cotton  wilt,   (3)   cotton  rust. 

31.  Principal  uses  of  cotton. 

32.  Name  the  principal  cotton  country  in  last  century.    At  present. 


238  COTTON  CULTURE 

33.  How  does  cotton  rank  in  importance  with  other  crops  in  the  United 

States? 

34.  Name  the  most  important  cotton  states. 

35.  Give  the  early  history  and  origin  of  cotton. 

36.  Relate  the  history  of  cotton  culture  in  the  United  States. 

37.  Was  native  cotton  found  in  America? 

38.  What  influence  did  the  invention  of  Whitney  and  Arkwright  have  on 

the  development  of  cotton  culture? 

39.  When  did  cotton  manufacture  begin  in  the  United  States? 

40.  Give  history  of  manufacture  of  cotton  after  introduction  of  the  power 

loom. 

41.  How  many  species  of  cotton  and  wher->  is  each  grown? 

42.  What  species  is  grown  in  the  United  States? 

43.  Name  the  types  of  upland  cotton. 

44.  Name  and  describe  the  principal  types  of  short-staple  cotton. 

45.  Where  is  Sea  Island  cotton  grown,  and  how  does  it  eiiil'er  from  upland 

cotton? 

46.  Describe  the  parts  of  a  cotton  plant  in  the  following  order :    Appear- 

ance of  plant;  branches ;   leaves ;   flowers;   squares;  bolls. 

47.  What  proportion  bj»  weight  is  fiber?    Proportion  of  fiber  to  seeds? 

48.  Describe    cotton    fiber. 

49.  How  can  you  distinguish  between  ripe  and  unripe  cotton  fibers? 

50.  Compare  cotton  and  wool  fibers. 

51.  Name  the  more  important  factors  in  judging  the  value  of  cotton. 

52.  What  proportion  of  seed   in  lock-cotton? 

53.  State  composition  of  seeds. 

54.  Are  seeds  smooth  or  fuzzy? 

55.  What  products  are  derived  from  seeds? 

56.  How  are  oil  and  oil  cake  made? 

57.  Name  the  principal  food  and  fertilizing  constituents  in  cottonseed  meal. 

58.  State  value  of  cottonseed  meal  for  feed ;  for  fertilizer. 

59.  What  use  is  made  of  cottonseed  oil  and  hulls? 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
FLAX 

FLAX  is  one  of  the  oldest  cultivated  crops,  since  its  value  as  a 
fiber  plant  was  discovered  very  early  by  mankind. 

The  great  use  of  flaxseed  as  a  source  of  oil  is  largely  a  modern 
development,  while  the  use  of  flax  fiber  has  declined  since  the 
development  of  cotton  culture. 

Importance  of  the  Crop. — At  present  most  of  the  world's  flax 
crop  (Fig.  88)  is  grown  for  oil  rather  than  fiber. 

Production   of  Flax,  1907-1908-1909 
Country                                Flaxseed,  bushels  Flax  fiber,  pounds 

Argentine    39,042,000 

United  States 25,504,000 

Russia  21,689,000  1,542,600,000 

India    11,814,600 

Other  countries 5,768,000  235,000,000 


World    103,817,600 

In  North  America  flax  culture  has  largely  followed  the  breaking 
up  of  new  prairie  lands,  being  especially  adapted  to  grow  on  new  sod 
lands.  The  three  leading  States  for  the  years  1907-1908-1909  were : 

North  Dakota 13,867,000  bushels 

South  Dakota 5,441,600  bushels 

Minnesota 4,668,000  bushels 

These  States  produce  about  90  per  cent  of  the  United  States  flax 
crop  (Fig.  89).  Flax  culture  is  also  developing  rapidly  in  the  new 
territory  of  Canada.  , 

Description. — The  Latin  name  of  flax  is  Linum,  from  which  we 
get  our  words  line,  linen,  lint,  and  linseed.  Botanists  recognize  135 
species  of  plants  belonging  to  the  flax  family,  but  only  one  of  these 
has  been  brought  under  cultivation  as  a  farm  crop,  though  several  are 
cultivated  as  ornamentals. 

The  common  flax  has  bright  blue  flowers,  but  there  is  also  a  white 
flowered  sort,  sometimes  called  Dutch  flax.  Flax  is  a  slender 
branching  plant,  eighteen  to  thirty-six  inches  high,  terminated  by 
numerous  "seed  balls "  (Fig.  90),  each  normally  containing  ten 
seeds. 

239 


DESCRIPTION 


241 


Flaxseed  is  very  rich  in  both  protein  and  oil.  After  the  oil  is 
extracted  a  by-product  is  left  known  as  oil  9ake,  very  rich  in  protein. 
Oil  cake  is  highly  prized  as  a  rich  stock  feed.  The  following  table 
shows  an  average  analysis  of  flaxseed  and  oil  cake,  compared  with  a 
starchy  grain  like  wheat : 

Flaxseed  and  Linseed  Cake  Compared  with  Wheat 

Flaxseed,       Linseed  cake,      Wheat  grain, 
per  cent  per  cent  per  cent 

Water    9.1  10.1  10.5 

Ash    4.3  5.8  1.8 

Protein    22.6  33.2  11.9 

Crude  fiber 7.1  9.5  1.8 

Nitrogen  free  extract    23.2  38.4  11.9 

Fat   (oil)    33.7  3.0  2.1 


Fio.  89. — Distribution  of  flax  production  (seed)  in  United  States.     (From  U.  S.  Census 

Report,  1910.) 

The  oil  is  extracted  by  grinding  fine,  heating  to  160°  F.  and 
extracting  by  pressure  (old  process),  or  treating  the  meal  in  vats 
with  naphtha  (new  process). 

The  fiber  of  flax  comes  from  the  stem.  The  stem  is  made  up 
of  three  distinct  parts :  The  outer,  called  bark ;  inside  this  a  woody 
layer  made  up  of  bast  fiber,  and  the  inner  part  or  pith. 

The  useful  fiber  comes  from  the  bast  layer.     From  twelve  to 
fifteen  per  cent  of  the  flax  straw  is  recovered  as  pure  fiber. 
16 


242  FLAX 

Culture. — Flax  will  grow  well  in  both  dry  and  humid  climates, 
but  in  general  rather  dry  climates  produce  the  best  seed  crops,  while 
best  fiber  is  grown  in  rather  cool  and  humid  climates,  where  condi- 
tions are  favorable  for  a  long  growing  season. 

Flax  requires  rather  rich  productive  soils,  especially  for  fiber 
production. 

Flax  is  least  adapted  of  all  the  cereal  crops  to  compete  with 
weeds,  as  it  is  a  slow  growing,  fine  stemmed  plant,  with  fine  leaves, 
and  shades  the  ground  very  little.  This  is  one  reason  why  it  is  grown 


*     * 


Fia.  90.— Flaxseed  balls. 

on  newly  broken  prairie  soils,  as  they  are  usually  quite  free  from 
weeds  the  first  year  or  two.  Flax  also  does  relatively  better  on  raw 
new  land  than  other  crops,  and  its  culture  in  general  has  followed 
the  breaking  up  of  the  prairie  lands.  On  old  soils  the  principal  con- 
sideration in  preparing  the  land  for  flax  is  to  free  the  soil  from  weeds. 
Flax  is  sensitive  to  frost  and  should  be  sown  when  all  danger  is 
over.  It  is  generally  sown  rather  late,  from  the  first  to  middle  of 
June.  For  seed  growing,  flax  is  sown  rather  thin,  or  at  the  rate  of 


QUESTIONS  243 

two  to  three  pecks  per  acre.  When  sown  thin  it  branches  freely,  the 
seed  balls  being  mostly  borne  at  the  ends  of  little  terminal  branches. 

For  fiber  it  should  be  sown  so  thickly  that  all  branching  is  pre- 
vented, producing  only  long  straight  stems.  From  five  to  ten  pecks 
per  acre  are  sown  for  fiber. 

Harvesting. — Flax  seldom  all  ripens  uniformly  and  judgment 
must  be  used  to  harvest,  when  the  highest  percentage  of  seed  balls  are 
ripe  at  one  time.  Flax  may  be  cut  with  a  self-binder,  But  it  is  still 
common  practice  to  leave  it  unbound  in  loose  gavels.  When  cured 
it  is  threshed  directly  from  the  field  or  stacked. 

For  fiber  the  flax  is  pulled  by  hand  for  best  grade  of  white  fiber, 
as  the  cut  ends  are  apt  to  become  discolored.  For  extracting  the 
fiber  the  straw  is  first  allowed  to  rot,  by  lying  in  the  field  for  several 
weeks  or  actually  placing  under  water.  This  process  is  called  "  ret- 
ting." The  fiber,  however,  is  not  affected  by  the  retting,  and  can  be 
separated  by  breaking,  beating,  and  combing  out  the  decomposed 
material. 

Diseases. — The  most  destructive  disease  of  the  flax  plant  is 
wilt.  This  is  a  parasitic  disease  attacking  the  stems,  cutting  off  the 
natural  water  supply  of  the  plant  and  causing  it  to  wilt.  The  dis- 
ease is  carried  over  in  old  stems,  seeds,  and  will  also  live  in  the  soil 
for  five  or  six  years.  Where  wilt  is  prevalent  flax  should  not  be 
grown  on  the  same  ground  oftener  than  once  in  six  years.  The  seed 
should  be  carefully  fanned  to  remove  diseased  seeds,  and  treated  with 
formalin  solution  to  kill  adhering  spores.  One  pound,  formalin 
to  forty  gallons  of  water  is  the  recommended  strength. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the   principal  uses  of  flax? 

2.  Where  most  extensively  grown   (a)   for  seed;    (ft)  for  fiber? 

3.  Name  the  leading  States  in  flax  production. 

4.  Describe  a  cultivated  flax  plant. 

5:  In  composition  Compare  with  wheat. 

6.  How  is  the  oil  extracted? 

7.  What  is  the  oil  cake  used  for? 

8.  Describe  structure  of  a  flax  stem. 

9.  What  per  cent  is  pure  fiber? 

10.  Give  the  best  conditions  for  growing  seed;  fiber. 

11.  Why  is  flax  often  grown  on  new  prairie  land? 

12.  Compare  the  culture  of  flax  for  seed  purposes  and  when  grown  for  fiber. 

13.  Describe  harvesting  flax  for  seed;  for  fiber. 

14.  How  is  fiber  separated? 

15.  How  is  flax  wilt  controlled? 


CHAPTEE  XXIX 
SORGHUMS 

SORGHUM,  like  the  corn  plant,  is  of  tropical  origin,  its  original 
home  apparently  being  central  or  northern  Africa.  There  is  also 
some  evidence  that  some  types  may  also  have  had  an  independent 
origin  in  India.  From  these  tropical  regions  its  culture  has  spread 
into  temperate  zones,  until  we  find  it  cultivated  extensively  in  Man- 
churia in  a  latitude  of  40°  north  and  in  the  south  temperate  zone 
in  the  very  southern  part  of  Africa. 

Where  Sorghums  Are  Produced, — We  have  very  little  pub- 
lished data  on  sorghum  as  a  world  crop,  but  it  is  known  to  be  ex- 
tensively cultivated  through  all  North  Africa,  where  it  probably 
ranks  as  the  leading  grain  crop.  It  is  also  grown  extensively  as  a 
grain  crop  in  South  Africa.  In  India  sorghum  is  also  a  very  im- 
portant grain  crop,  and  is  stated  by  some  authors  as  the  principal 
grain  food  of  the  poor.  Sorghum  probably  ranks  next  to  rice  as  a 
grain  crop  in  India.  It  is  cultivated  to  some  extent  throughout 
China,  and  in  certain  parts  of  North  China  and  Manchuria  is  an 
important  grain  crop.  Its  culture  is  not  important  in  Europe. 

In  the  United  States  sorghum  is  grown  for  syrup  making,  as  a 
forage  plant,  and  as  a  grain  crop.  It  will  be  noted  that  in  Africa 
and  Asia  sorghum  is  grown  principally  as  a  grain  crop. 

As  a  syrup  crop  sorghum  is  grown  largely  in  the  East  Central 
States,  or  rather  the  belt  of  States  from  Missouri  to  North  Carolina 
and  south  of  the  Ohio  Eiver.  Tennessee  is  the  leading  State  in 
syrup  production. 

As  a  grain  and  forage  crop  sorghum  is  grown  principally  in  the 
belt  of  States  lying  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from  the 
Nebraska-Dakota  line  south  through  Texas.  As  a  grain  crop 
sorghum  is  grown  principally  in  the  western  part  of  these  States, 
while  it  is  grown  for  forage  through  the  whole  area. 

Broom  corn  is  also  a  sorghum.     About  two-thirds  of  the  broom 
corn  is  grown  in  Illinois,  and  about  all  the  rest  in  Nebraska,  Kansas, 
Missouri,  and  Oklahoma. 
244 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SORGHUMS  245 

The  Acreage. — The  acreage,  as  nearly  as  can  be  estimated  from 
the  Census  of  1909,1  is  as  follows : 

Acreage  of  Sorghums 

1909  1899         Increase  per  cent 

Grain  sorghums 1,635,153  266,513  513.5 

Sorghums  for  forage  (including 
both  grain  and  sweet  sor- 
ghums)    1,900,000 

Sorghum  for  syrup    370,000  244,000  51.0 

Broom  corn ' 326,102  178,584  82.6 

Three-fourths  of  all  the  sorghum  for  grain  and  forage  is  grown 
in  the  three  States  of  Texas,  Kansas,  and  Oklahoma,  in  the  order 
named.  The  approximate  acreage  for  grain  and  forage  in  the  three 
States  is  as  follows : 

Acreage  of  Sorghums  in  Three  Leading  States 

Grain  sorghum  Forage  sorghum 
State                                                          acreage  acreage 

Kansas   388,495  531,000 

Oklahoma    532,515  301,000 2 

Texas     573,384  655,000 2 

Classification  of  Sorghums. — Sorghums  are  generally  classed 
into  two  groups : 

1.  Saccharine  sorghums  or  sweet  sorghums  (Fig.  91).     These 
sorghums  all  have  sweet,  juicy  stems  and  are  grown  for  syrup  making 
or  for  forage. 

2.  Non-saccharine  sorghums  (Figs.  92  and  93).    This  group  has 
a  rather  dry  pith  and  very  little  sugar  in  the  juice.     These  sorghums 
are  sometimes  called  the  grain  sorghums,  and  are  sometimes  divided 
into  three  types  as  follows : 

(a)   Kafir :   Heads  compact,  erect. 

(&)   Durra :  Heads  compact,  pendent. 

(c)   Broom  corn  type:   Heads  loose,  spreading  (Fig.  94). 

1  Estimated  from  1909  Census.     Separate  figures  are  not  given,  as  sor- 
ghum is  classed  with  "  coarse  forage,"  which  class  also  includes  corn  fodder. 
However,   statistics   from   the   Kansas   State   Board   of   Agriculture   show 
631,000  acres  of  sorghum  forage  out  of  a  total  of  653,000  acres  of  coarse 
forage.     In  the  five  States  growing  sorghum  as  coarse  forage   (Nebraska. 
Kansas,   Oklahoma,   Texas,   New   Mexico)    there   is   about   2,000,000   acres 
of  coarse  forage,  and  estimating  95-  per  cent  to  be  sorghum  gives  above 
figures. 

2  Estimated,  see  footnote  to  above  table. 


246 


SORGHUMS 


Kafir  or  Kafir  Corn. — The  Kafir  corns  were  introduced  into  the 
United  States  mostly  from  South  Africa,  where  they  have  long  been 


t» 


"  •^Wifcf" 


FIG.  91. — Head  of  amber  sweet  sorghum.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

cultivated.     They  grow  to  an  average  height  of  five  or  six  feet  and 
have  an  erect,  very  compact  head.     The  three  principal  varieties  are 


DURRA 


247 


distinguished  by  the  color  of  seeds,  and  are  known  as  White,  Red, 
and  Blackhull  Kafir  corns  (Fig.  94).  Of  the  three  varieties  the 
Blackhull  is  most  popular  and  the  Bed  Kafir  is  next.  The  White 
varieties  have  never  been  cultivated  extensively,  as  the  heads  do  not 
always  come  out  of  the  leaf  sheath  and  are  likely  to  rot.  One  fault 
of  the  Red  Kafir  is  the  astringent  taste  of  the  seed-coat,  a  quality 
found  in  all  colored  sorghum  seeds,  but  not  found  in  white  seeds. 


FIG.  92. 


FIG.  93. 


v, 


FIG.  92.— Plant  of  Kafir  corn. 
FIG.  93. — Non-saccharine    sorghums, 
corn,    (3)   Brown  Durra  corn. 


(1)    Milo    maize,    (2)   Blackhull   White   Kafir 


Durra. — The  heads  of  this  group  of  sorghums  are  generally  bent 
over  or  ee  goosenecked,"  and  the  seeds  are  large  and  flat.  The  Durra 
corns  were  apparently  introduced  from  North  Africa,  where  they  are 
the  prevailing  types  as  the  Kafirs  are  in  South  Africa. 

The  principal  types  of  Durra  are  the  White  (Fig.  94,  5),  Brown, 
and  Blackhull;  also  Yellow  Milo  or  "  Milo  Maize."  Feterita  is, 
a  type  with  erect  heads,  white  seeds,  and  black  hulls.  Other  names 
for  Durras  are  "  Jerusalem  corn,"  and  "  Egyptian  rice  corn." 

Of  the  above  types,  Yellow  Milo  is  by  far  the  most  popular. 


248 


SORGHUMS 


Being  earlier  it  is  grown  farther  north  than  other  Kafirs  or  Durras. 
Certain  dwarf  strains  have  been  developed  which  are  not  only  very 
early  but,  as  a  grain  crop,  are  easier  handled  in  harvesting.  Feterita, 
a  recent  introduction,  promises  to  be  equal  or  superior  to  Milo,  and  is 
rapidly  gaining  in  favor.  The  Durras,  as  a  class,  are  better  grain 
producers  than  the  Kafirs,  but  are  not  so  good  as  forage  crops. 

Broom  Corn  Group. — This  group  includes  rather  tall-growing 
sorghums  (six  to  ten  feet)  with  branching  heads  (Fig.  95).     They 


FIG.  94.— Sorghum  seeds:  A,  Milo;  B,  White  Durra;  C,  Blackhull  Kafir;  D,  Red" Kafir;  E, 
Brown  Kowliang;  F,  Shallu.    (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

have  been  introduced  from  Asia:  the  Shallu  from  India  and  the 
Kowliang  from  China  and  Manchuria. 

The  two  above-mentioned  varieties  are  grown  as  grain  sorghums, 
but  their  introduction  is  recent  and  they  have  not  yet  come  into 
extensive  cultivation.  They  are  said  to  be  very  drought  resistant, 
and  the  Kowliang  is  adapted  to  culture  farther  north  than  most 
grain  sorghums. 

Broom  corn,  from  which  brooms  are  manufactured,  is  a  form 
of  this  sorghum,  with  very  long  branching  heads. 

Climate  for  Sorghums. — Sorghums,  being  of  tropical  origin, 
flourish  in  hot,  sunshiny  climates.  One  of  the  most  striking  char- 


CLIMATE  FOR  SORGHUMS 


249 


FIG.  95. — Broom  corn  group  of  sorghums.     (1)  broom  corn,  (2)   Kowliang,  (3)  Shallu. 

acteristics  of  sorghums  is  their  great  drought  resistance  and  resist- 
ance to  other  climatic  conditions  that  generally  prevail  in  semi-arid 


250  SORGHUMS 

regions,  as  intense  sunshine,  dry  air,  and  hot  winds.  Certain  varie- 
ties, especially  the  sweet  sorghums,  flourish  in  regions  of  heavy  rain- 
fall, but  even  these  are  quite  drought  resistant.  The  Kafirs  and 
Durras,  however,  probably  reach  their  best  development  under  only 
moderate  rainfall  (ten  to  twelve  inches  for  the  growing  season)  and 
are  very  resistant  to  dry,  hot  climates. 

How  Sorghums  Resist  Drought. — Actual  test  has  shown 
sorghums  to  require  less  water  than  many  other  crops.  This  is  de- 
termined by  growing  plants  in  large  cans  and  keeping  a  record  of 
the  water  used.  The  water  used  is  generally  expressed  in  the  num- 
ber of  pounds  required  to  produce  one  pound  of  dry  weight.  With 
some  of  the  common  crops,  the  following  data  have  been  secured  by 
Briggs  and  Shantz  at  Akron,  Colorado.  (Bureau  of  Plant  Industry 
Bulletin  284.) 

Water  Requirements  of  Grains 

Pounds  of  water  to  Percentage 

produce  one  pound  compared 

Crop                             of  dry  weight  with  wheat 

Oats    614  122 

Barley    539  106 

Wheat 507  100 

Corn    369  73 

Sorghum    306  60 

Millet  . 275  54 

While  sorghum  requires  less  water  than  the  small  grains,  it  is 
not  very  different  from  corn.  Yet  sorghum  is  more  drought  re- 
sistant than  corn,  which  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  it  must  also 
have  other  qualities  to  consider.  It  appears  to  be  helped  by  its 
ability  to  remain  alive,  but  without  growing,  through  long  periods  of 
drought,  apparently  without  injury,  and  at  once  recover  and  grow 
rapidly  when  rains  come.  If  sorghum,  at  any  stage  of  growth,  is 
subjected  to  long,  severe  drought,  the  outer  leaves  roll  up  about  the 
plant,  protecting  the  younger  leaves  and  growing  top.  It  may  re- 
main in  this  state  for  weeks,  with  little  or  no  growth,  and  quickly 
recover  and  continue  growth  when  rains  come.  On  the  other  hand, 
corn,  if  submitted  to  such  a  drought,  would  in  a  short  time  be  killed 
or,  at  least,  be  severely  injured.  In  fact,  it  is  said  that  any  check 
to  the  corn  plant  during  its  growth  will  cause  permanent  injury. 
This  is  generally  true  of  all  crops,  but  sorghums  suffer  least  of  all. 


CULTURAL  METHODS 


251 


Soils  for  Sorghums. — Sorghums  do  well  on  any  productive  soil 
(Fig.  96).  They  are  also  more  alkali  resistant  than  the  grain  crops 
and  are  regarded  as  a  crop  that  can  be  grown  in  soils  comparatively 
high  in  alkali  salts.  Sorghums  are  vigorous -growers,  and  often  a 
profitable  crop,  especially  for  forage,  can  be  raised  on  land  too  ex- 
hausted for  good  crops  of  small  grain  or  corn. 

Effect  of  Sorghums  on  Land. — Farmers  usually  regard  sor- 
ghum as  "  hard  on  the  land."  This  is  probably  due  to  the  thorough 
search  the  sorghum  roots  make  for  available  plant-food,  leaving  the 
soil  more  thoroughly  exhausted.  However,  the  total  plant-food  re- 


FIG.  96. — Field  of  selected  Brown  Kowliang. 

moved  is  no  larger  than  in  the  case  of  an  equal  tonnage  of  other 
crops,  and  usually  the  second  year  after  sorghum,  no  injurious  ef- 
fect is  noticed. 

Cultural  Methods. — Sorghum  is  grown  for  four  purposes :  (1) 
grain;  (2)  forage;  (3)  syrup;  (4)  broom  brush. 

For  grain,  syrup,  and  broom  brush  it  is  always  grown  in  rows 
about  like  field  corn,  except  that  two  to  three  times  as  many  plants 
are  grown  per  acre.  The  rows  are  about  the  same  distance  apart 
(forty  to  forty-four  inches)  as  corn,  but  the  plants  four  to  ten 
inches  in  the  row  instead  of  twelve  to  twenty  inches. 


252  SORGHUMS 

For  forage,  sorghum  is  either  grown  in  wide  rows,  as  mentioned, 
with  the  plants  very  thickly  in  the  row,  or  it  is  sown  broadcast  or  is 
drilled  thickly  with  a  grain  drill. 

Rate  of  Seeding. — Four  to  six  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  suf- 
ficient to  give  a  good  stand  in  rows  forty-two  inches  apart.  Or- 
dinarily the  plants  are  spaced  about  four  to  six  inches  in  the  row, 
but  in  very  dry  regions  ten  inches  apart  is  often  preferred.  The 
amount  of  seed  is  also  regulated  by  size,  as  the  seeds  of  the  Durra 
group  are  about  twice  the  size  of  sweet  sorghum  or  broom  corn. 

Time  of  Seeding. — Sorghum  is  more  tender  than  corn  and  is 
usually  planted  after  corn-planting.  Planting  is  often  deferred, 
however,  until  quite  late,  just  so  it  has  time  to  mature  before  frost. 
However,  in  the  southern  States  an  insect  known  as  the  sorghum 
midge  attacks  late-sown  sorghum,  destroying  the  seed,  and  very 
early  planting  is  desirable  whenever  the  midge  is  present. 

Planting  and  Cultivation. — The  same  tools  are  used  in  planting 
and  cultivating  as  for  corn.  Special  plates  for  sorghum  seed  are 
used  in  the  planter.  In  cultivation,  more  care  is  required  the  first 
time  over  as  the  plants  are  small  and  slow  in  growth  for  the  first 
few  weeks. 

Harvesting  Grain  Sorghums. — Grain  sorghums  are  harvested 
in  three  ways:  (1)  with  the  corn  binder;  (2)  when  dwarf  varieties 
are  grown,  the  grain  binder  may  be  used ;  (3)  the  heads  may  be  cut 
off  by  hand.  In  the  latter  case  the  heads  from  several  rows  may  be 
thrown  together  on  the  ground  to  cure,  or  a  wagon  may  be  driven 
alongside  and  the  heads  thrown  as  cut  directly  into  the  wagon- 
box.  When  the  heads  are  well  cured  the  sorghum  is  threshed  in  an 
ordinary  grain  thresher. 

Yield  of  Grain  Sorghums. — The  average  yield  of  grain 
sorghums  varies  from  twelve  to  twenty  bushels  per  acre.  Forty 
bushels  per  acre  is  considered  a  good  crop,  while  crops  of  seventy 
bushels  are  occasionally  reported. 

As  compared  with  Indian  corn,  grain  sorghum  will  not  yield  as 
well  in  regions  having  twenty-five  to  thirty  inches  annual  rainfall, 
but  in  drier  regions  grain  sorghum  will  make  a  fair  crop  when  corn 
is  a  complete  failure.  The  region  of  grain  sorghum  culture  there- 
fore lies  just  outside  of  the  corn  belt. 


SORGHUM  FOR  SYRUP  253 

Feeding  Value  of  Grain  Sorghums. — Kafir  and  Mik>  grain  are 
somewhat  more  starchy  than  other  cereals,  and  require  more  protein 
feed  to  balance  them.  Also  they  have  a  higher  per  cent  of  hull  and 
are  a  little  less  digestible.  Ordinarily  for  stock  feed  it  is  estimated 
that  100  pounds  of  sorghum  grain  equals  about  80  to  90  pounds  of 
corn.  For  poultry  feed,  however,  sorghum  grain  is  considered 
superior  to  corn,  and  is  often  used  in  large  proportion  in  poultry 
feeds. 

Owing  to  the  heavy  hull,  sorghum  seed"  should  be  ground  for  live 
stock,  but  may  be  fed  whole  to  poultry. 

Sorghum  for  Forage. — For  forage  the  sweet  sorghums  are  pre- 
ferred. The  stems  contain  considerable  sugar  and  cattle  will  usually 
eat  the  stems  as  well  as  the  leaves.  The  stems  of  grain  sorghum  are 
not  only  more  pithy  and  tougher,  but  the  plant  is  less  leafy.  How- 
ever, grain  sorghums  are  used  extensively  as  fodder,  when  the  heavier 
grain  crop  is  considered  to  offset  the  less  valuable  fodder. 

For  forage,  the  sorghum  is  either  ( 1 )  sown  thickly  in  rows  three 
to  four  feet  apart  and  cut  with  the  corn  binder  or  (2)  sown  broad- 
cast by  hand  or  with  the  grain  drill,  to  be  cut  with  a  mower  and 
cured  as  hay. 

Rate  of  Sowing. — Sorghum  is  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  one 
to  three  bushels  per  acre.  It  should  be  sown  thick  enough  to  keep 
the  stems  down  to  small  size.  On  poor  soils  or  in  dry  regions  the 
thinner  seeding  is  practised,  while  on  rich  soils  in  humid  regions 
two  to  three  bushels  per  acre  are  sown. 

Sorghum  for  Soiling. — There  is  no  crop  better  for  cutting  green 
for  feeding  live  stock.  It  is  good  feed  from  the  time  it  is  four  feet 
high  until  frost  comes.  A  second  crop  immediately  sprouts  up 
from  the  stubble,  thus  giving  two  crops  in  the  South.  Sorghum  also 
makes  excellent  silage. 

Sorghum  for  Syrup. — Sweet  sorghum  was  first  grown  in 
America  for  syrup  making.  It  was  introduced  from  France  about 
1853  under  the  name  "  Chinese  sorgo,"  but  the  variety  was  what  we 
now  know  as  Amber  sorghum. 

For  syrup,  sorghum  is  grown  in  rows.  When  the  seed  is  in  the 
dough  stage  the  leaves  are  stripped  off.  The  canes  are  then  topped 
and  cut.  The  juice  is  extracted  on  roller  presses,  clarified  and 
evaporated.  Sorghum  varies  greatly  in  quality,  but  usually  a  ton 


254  SORGHUMS 

of  canes  will  yield  from  ten  to  thirty  gallons  of  syrup.  Three  tons 
of  canes  per  acre  is  a  fair  yield. 

Broom  Corn  Culture. — Broom  corn  grows  eight  to  ten  feet 
tall,  has  a  dry  pithy  stem,  and  very  long  branching  heads  of  "  brush." 
It  has  been  cultivated  in  Europe  for  at  least  300  years,  and  in 
America  since  1800. 

Where  Cultivated. — Illinois  produces  about  two-thirds  of  the 
broom-corn  crop,  and  the  rest  is  grown  principally  in  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Oklahoma. 

Varieties. — There  are  two  general  types:  (1)  standard,  growing 
ten  to  twelve  feet  high,  with  a  brush  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches 
long;  (2)  dwarf  broom  corn,  growing  four  to  six  feet  high,  with  a 
brush  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long. 

Culture. — Any  good  corn  land  will  grow  broom  corn,  but  it  is 
considered  important  to  have  the  land  quite  uniform  in  order  to 
produce  a  crop  that  will  ripen  at  the  same  time  and  will  be  of 
uniform  quality. 

It  is  grown  ir.  rows  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet  apart,  with 
the  plants  two  to  three  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

When  just  past  full  bloom,  the  heads  are  harvested  and  cured. 
Considerable  skill  is  required  in  harvesting  and  curing  to  secure  a 

good  quality. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  did  sorghum  originate? 

2.  How  important  a  crop  is  sorghum  in  the  Old  World? 

3.  What  are  the  principal  uses  for  the  sorghum  crop? 

4.  Where  in  the  United  States  is  it  grown  for  syrup;  grain  forage;  broom 

corn? 

5.  Give  the  relative  importance  of  these  crops. 

6.  Name  the  principal  groups  and  types  of  sorghum. 

7.  Distinguish  between  Kafir  and  Durra. 

8.  What   is    the   principal   use   of   the    saccharine    sorghums?      The    non- 

saccharine  sorghums? 

9.  Define  the  climatic  requirements  of  sorghum. 

10.  What  explanations  for  the  great  drought  resistance  of  sorghums? 

11.  Discuss  the  range  of  soil  conditions  that  will  grow  sorghum. 

12.  Is  sorghum  "  hard  on  land  "  ? 

.13.  Describe  the  method  of  growing  sorghums  in  rows. 

14.  How  are  grain  sorghums  harvested? 

15.  Give  the  yield  of  grain  sorghums  compared  with  corn. 

16.  Define  the  feeding  value  of  sorghum  grain. 

17.  What  kind  of  sorghum  is  preferred  for  forage? 

18.  Describe  method  of  culture. 

19.  How  much  syrup  can  be  made  from  an  acre  of  sorghum? 

20.  Describe  the  culture  of  broom  corn. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
IRISH  POTATOES 

As  human  food  in  the  world,  wheat  undoubtedly  ranks  first,  but 
potatoes  probably  rank  second.  In  Europe  among  the  poorer  classes 
they  rank  first.  This  is  due  to  their  easy  and  cheap  production  and 
nutritious  property. 

Where  Potatoes  Are  Grown. — The  relative  ranking  of  potatoes 
and  other  crops  in  the  world  and  the  United  States  for  the  years 
1906-1910  is  shown  by  the  following  tables : 

World's  crops  in  millions  of  tons,  Relative  value  of  crops  in  United  States  in 

1906-1910  millions  of  dollars,  1906-1910 

Potatoes 156  Corn    1,431 

Corn    113  Hay      681 

Wheat 107  Cotton     570 

Oats     67  Wheat    590 

Rice    67  Oats     367 

Rye    46  Potatoes    187 

Barley    33  Barley   92 

Tobacco 82 

Over  ninety  per  cent  of  the  world's  potato  crop  is  grown  in 
Europe  (Fig.  97),  where  they  are  the  chief  food  of  poor  people,  and 
are  also  used  for  stock  feed  and  in  the  arts. 

Yield  of  Potatoes  6t/  Continents  (1905-1909) 
•    }  Continent  Millions  of  bushels 

Europe    4,745.7 

North   America 378.7 

Asia    38.2 

Australia 19.4 

South  America 16.8 

Africa  .  4.8 


5,203.6  100.0 

Germany  and  Eussia  produce  more  than  one-half  the  world's 
potato  crop.  The  production  and  yield  per  acre,  of  principal  coun- 
tries are  as  follows : 

Millions  of  bushels,      Average  yield  per  acre, 
Country  1905-1909  1900-1909 

Germany    1,689  200.0 

Russia    1,048  •                  99.9 

Austria-Hungary   709  134.9 

France    „ 529  133.8 

United  States 304  .        92.0 

255 


THE  POTATO  TUBER  257 

In  the  United  States,  New  York  has  led  in  potato  production 
for  the  past  quarter  century  (Fig.  98). 

The  leading  States  and  yield  per  acre  are  as  follows : 

Production  in  millions         Yield  per  acre, 
State  of  bushels,  1906-1910  1900-1909 

New  York 43.5  88 

Michigan    30.0  88 

Pennsylvania    23.6  82 

Wisconsin    23.5  92 

Maine  22.8  180 

In  the  last  few  years  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Maine,  and  Minnesota 
have  been  rapidly  gaining  in  production  and  are  now  all  close  rivals 
of  New  York. 

Origin  and  History  of  Potatoes. — Several  wild  varieties  of 
potatoes  are  found  growing  throughout  the  Andes  Mountains  in 
Soutli  America,  and  continuing  northward  through  the  mountains 
of  Mexico  and  into  southwest  Colorado.  South  American  natives 
have  apparently  cultivated  the  potato  for  many  hundreds  of  years. 

Early  explorers  took  potatoes  back  to  Europe,  but  they  did  not 
become  an  important  food  plant  there  until  about  the  year  1750.  Its 
extensive  culture  developed  first  in  Ireland,  from  which  it.  got  the 
name  "  Irish  Potato/7  where  it  was  introduced  about  1584,  probably 
from  seed  sent  back  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  expedition  to  America. 

Description  of  the  Plant. —  Potatoes  are  closely  related  botani- 
cally  to  several  other  important  plants,  as  tobacco,  the  tomato,  and 
egg-plant.  Wild  potatoes  bear  only  small  tubers  of  poor  quality, 
but  these  have  been  improved  by  selection  and  cultivation. 

Potato  Seeds. — While  potatoes  frequently  blossom  under  culti- 
vation, they  seldom  bear  seeds.  This  appears  to  be  due  to  the  pollen 
having  lost  its  ability  to  fertilize  under  cultivation.  The  seed  balls 
are  borne  on  the  tips  of  vines  and  resemble  small  green  tomatoes, 
each  containing  about  300  seeds  (Fig.  99).  If  the  seeds  are 
planted,  they  produce  small  tuber-bearing  plants.  If  the  tubers  are 
planted,  a  second  year  a  plant  of  normal  size  is  grown.  While  most 
of  the  varieties  grown  from  seed  are  of  little  value,  yet  occasionally 
varieties  of  great  value  are  originated  in  this  way. 

The  Potato  Tuber. — The  potato  tuber  is  not  a  root,  but  corre- 
17 


258 


IRISH  POTATOES 


COLOR  OF  SKIN 


259 


spends  to  an  underground  branch  of  the  stem  that  has  become 
thickened  (Fig.  100). 

The  eyes  of  the  potato  correspond  to  latent  buds  on  the  stem, 
while  the  inner  portion  corresponds  to  the  structural  parts  of  the 
stem.  '  The  sweet  potato  differs  from  the  Irish  potato  in  being  an 
enlarged  root,  not  a  stem. 

Classification  of  Potatoes.  —  At  least  400  to  500  varieties  of 
potatoes  are  known  in  America,  while  the  total  in  the  world  is  of 
course  much  larger.     New  varie- 
ties are  each  year  put  on  the 
market.     However,  many  varie- 
ties are  so  similar  that  for  all 
practical   purposes   there   is   no 
difference,    and   in   many   cases 
old    established    varieties    have 
simply  been  given  new  names. 

The  classification  of  Ameri- 
can potatoes  has  been  studied  by 
Mr.  William  Stuart,  of  the 
United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  He  divides  them 
into  eleven  natural  groups  which 
can  be  fairly  easily  distinguished. 
The  principal  features  he  uses  in 

7      . 

claSSlfvmfif     are     the     Shape     and 

Color      of      tuber,      the      Color      Of 

sprouts,  and  color  of  flowers. 

Shape  of  Tuber.  —  Many  descriptive  terms  are  necessary  to  de- 
scribe potato  tubers,  as  they  are  so  variable. 

Round,  oblong,  and  long  refer  to  relative  length.  Any  of  the 
types  may  be  flattened  or  round.  Flat  types  are  also  described  as 
broad  or  narrow.  Spindle  shape  refers  to  tubers  tapering  at  one 
end,  as  contrasted  with  uniform. 

Color  of  Skin.  —  Color  of  tuber  is  described  as  white,  cream- 
white,  flesh  color,  pink,  rose,  red  and  bluish,  mottled,  and  russet 
urown. 


FIG.  99.  —  Drawing  in  diagram  of  potato 
flower,  and  mature  seed  balls  (flower  enlarged). 
They  are  almost  identical  with  the  flowers 
and  fruits  of  the  tomato,  showing  the  close 
relation  of  the  two  plants. 


260 


IRISH  POTATOES 


The  skin  may  also  be  smooth,  marked  with  russet  dots,  or  russet. 
There  are  also  degrees  of  smoothness,  some  varieties  being  glistening 
smooth,  while  others  are  dull.  The  degree  of  russeting  also  varies. 

Sprouts. — The  color  of  sprouts  is  very  important  in  determining 
the  main  groups  of  varieties.  The  color  is  determined  by  germinat- 
ing the  potatoes  in  the  dark,  and  as  soon  as  the  sprouts  appear, 


FIG.  100. — Illustration  of  a  potato  plant  showing  relation  of  the  above-ground  stem 
and  underground  stem.  The  end  of  the  underground  stem  is  enlarged  into  a  tuber.  The 
eyes  correspond  to  buds,  and  are  arranged  in  a  spiral  about  the  tuber.  Below  is  a  peach 
twig  to  illustrate  farther  the  relation  of  tuber  and  a  stem. 

examining  for  color,  usually  with  a  magnifying  glass.  The  sprout 
is  tipped  with  minute  scales  or  leaflets,  which  may  be  either  colored 
or  white.  Also  base  of  sprouts  may  be  either  colored  or  white. 

The  usual  colors  are  white,  cream-white,  pink,  rose,  rose-lilac, 
magenta,  lilac,  violet,  deep  violet. 

Flowers. — Colors  are  white,  rose,  rose-lilac,  rose-purple,  purple 
and  violet. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  GROUPS 


261 


The  Principal  Groups. — Stuart x  divides  potatoes  into  the  fol- 
lowing principal  groups : 

1.  Cobbler:  Roundish,;  creamy  white  (Fig.  101). 

2.  Triumph :   Roundish ;   creamy  white  to  red. 

3.  Early  Michigan :   Oblong  or  long-flattened ;  white  or  creamy 
white. 

4.  Rose :   Roundish,  elongated-flattened  or  spindle-shape ;  flesh- 
colored  or  pink  (Fig.  103). 

FIG.  10L  FIG.  102. 


FIG.   101. — Variety,  Irish  cobbler,  representing  the  early,  round,  white-skinned  type. 
FIG.   102. — Rural  New  Yorker,  representing  the  oval-flattened  type,   of  whiter-skinned 
potatoes  with  blue  sprouts.    Above  specimen  is  ideal  market  shape  (^  natural  size) . 

5.  Early  Ohio:   Round,  oblong  or  ovoid;   flesh-colored  to  light 
pink,  with  russet  dots. 

6.  Hebron:     Elongated,    sometimes   flattened;    creamy   white, 
often  mottled  with  pink. 

7.  Burbank:    Long;    white,  or  creamy;    also  both  smooth  and 
russet  varieties. 

8.  Green  Mountain:    Oblong,  broad,  flattened;    dull  creamy  or 
light  russet. 

1  Stuart,  William :    United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin 
176. 


262 


IRISH  POTATOES 


9.  Rural:    Round-flattened  to  short  oblong;    creamy  white  or 
deep  russet  (Fig.  102). 

10.  Pearl :  Round-flattened ;  dull  white,  russet  or  bluish. 

11.  Peachblow:     Round     or     round-flattened;     creamy     white 
splashed  with  pink,  or  pink. 

The  first  six  groups  are  largely  early  varieties,  while  the  last  five 
groups  are  mostly  late  varieties. 

Importance  of  the  Groups. — The  Rose  group  probably  contains 
the  largest  number  of  varieties,  and  is  one  of  the  oldest  (Fig.  103). 
They  are  not,  however,  cultivated  so  extensively  as  several  other 


FIG.  103. — Early  Rose,  representing  the  Rose  group  of  long,  pink  or  red-skinned  potatoes 
with  rather  deep  eyes.    % 

groups.  They  are  mostly  very  early  and  pink  colored,  and  are 
popular  in  the  South  Atlantic  region  where  this  type  is  grown,  to 
ship  as  "new  potatoes"  for  the  northern  market. 

In  the  Northeastern  States,  Irish  Cobbler  (Fig.  101)  is  the 
most  important  early  potato  along  the  Atlantic  Coast,  where  most  of 
the  early  crop  is  grown.  They  are  very  productive  for  early  potatoes. 

For  early  garden  crop  the  Triumph  group  of  varieties  are 
preferred  as  to  quality,  but  are  less  productive. 

For  late  or  main  crop  the  Rural  group  leads  (Fig.  102),  with  the 
Green  Mountain  type  as  second.  In  general  the  Green  Mountain 
group  requires  a  cooler  summer,  and  sandier  soil  than  the  Rural 


MARKET  TYPES  263 

group  of  potatoes,  and  is  therefore  grown  toward  the  North,  at 
higher  elevations  and  along  the  Atlantic  Coast,  while  Rurals  are 
grown  on  the  heavier  clay  lands  and  at  lower  elevations,  as  Western 
New  York. 

In  Southeastern  States. — Here  early  varieties  are  most  ex- 
tensively grown  for  Northern  markets.  For  shipping  green,  the  col- 
ored potatoes  are  usually  preferred  to  white,  and  here  varieties  of  the 
Rose  group  are  extensively  used,  also  both  Triumph  and  Cobbler. 

North  Central  States. — In  the  northern  part  of  this  region,  the 


FIG.   104. — Russet  Burbank,  representing  the  medium  long  types  of  the  Burbank  group. 
Most  Burbanks  have  a  smooth  skin,  but  this  is  a  russet  type  (%  natural  size) . 

Rural  and  Burbank  (Fig.  104)  groups  both  give  good  results,  but 
through  the  corn  belt,  early  Ohio  type  is  most  important,  though 
many  varieties  are  grown  to  some  extent. 

Western^  States. — In  Colorado  the  Rural,  Pearl,  and  Burbanks 
are  the  principal  groups,  while  the  same  three  groups  are  also  most 
important  in  the  inter-mountain  basin  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
though  locally,  one  variety  or  another  usually  leads. 

Market  Types. — It  will  be  noted  that  the  principal  commercial 
potatoes  are  either  roundish,  as  in  the  Irish  Cobbler,  or  oval-flattened, 
as  Rural  or  Green  Mountain ;  oblong,  as  in  Rose  group,  or  long,  as 


264  IRISH  POTATOES 

in  the  Burbank  group.  The  general  market  preference  now  is  for 
the  oval-flat,  Bural  type,  and  medium  in  size. 

Depth  of  and  Number  of  Eyes. — This  is  also  important,  as 
deep  eyes  cause  waste  in  peeling  and  injure  the  appearance.  Both 
Green  Mountain  and  Rurals  have  few  eyes,  and  very  shallow,  which 
is  one  reason  for  their  great  popularity  as  market  potatoes. 

Color  of  skin  adds  more  to  appearance  than  quality.  White  or 
cream-white  is  preferred.  For  shipping  green,  the  red  or  pink  col- 
ored potatoes  show  the  effects  of  bruising  less,  and  are  often  grown 
in  the  South  where  "  green  "  potatoes  are  shipped  a  long  distance. 

Structure  and  Composition. — The  potato  tuber  may  be  di- 
vided into  four  principal  parts  (Fig.  105),  namely: 

Skin    2.5  per  cent 

Cortical  layer 8.5  per  cent 

Outer  medullary  )  gq  Q                 , 
Inner  medullary  \"" 

The  cortical  layer  and  the  outer  medullary  are  both  rich  in  starch 
and  constitute  80  to  90  per  cent  of  the  potato.  The  inner  medul- 
lary, sometimes  called  the  core,  is  quite  watery,  and  spreads  irregu- 
larly from  the  center. 

It  is  generally  considered  a  mark  of  poor  quality  if  the  inner 
medullary  is  large  and  conspicuous. 

In  composition  potatoes  contain  from  75  to  80  per  cent  of  water, 
from  16  to  20  per  cent  starch,  2  to  3  per  cent  of  protein  and  1  per 
cent  ash  and  a  trace  of  fat  and  fiber.  The  dry  matter  of  potatoes  is 
very  similar  in  composition  to  the  dry  matter  of  wheat. 

In  peeling  potatoes,  from  10  to  30  per  cent  is  removed  in  the 
peeling,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  potato  and  depth  of  the  eyes. 
The  loss  is  least  with  large,  smooth  potatoes. 

CLIMATE   AND   SOILS   FOR   POTATOES 

* 

Climate. — Potatoes  require  a  moist  and  cool  climate.  Climate 
is  probably  a  much  greater  factor  in  potato  production  than  soils, 
as  they  appear  to  grow  well  on  any  productive  soils  in  a  favorable 
climate. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  cold  summer  climate  of  Scotland  is 
almost  ideal  for  potatoes.  Crops  of  300  to  500  bushels  per  acre  are 


Bud 


Cortical 
Medullary 


— SKio 
—  Cortical 

-  -  -Medullary  (outer) 

-  -  -W 


FIG.  105. — Illustration  showing  the  internal  structure  of  a  potato  tuber,  and  relation 
to  structure  of  a  stem.  Note  that  the  inner  medullary,  corresponding  to  the  pith  in  a  stem, 
is  connected  with  the  eyes  of  the  tuber.  The  outer  portion  is  richest  in  starch  and  the  inner 
portion  poorest  in  starch. 


266  IRISH  POTATOES 

easily  grown  in  Scotland.  The  warmer  climate  of  England  is  less 
favorable. 

In  Europe  great  potato  crops  are  grown  in  the  cool  summers  of 
North  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  and  Scandinavia,  while  the  pro- 
duction is  much  less  in  South  Europe  or  the  hot  summer  climates  of 
the  interior  of  Hungaria  or  Russia. 

In  the  United  States  the  most  favorable  summer  climate  is  found 
in  the  northern  tier  of  States,  especially  Maine,  which  is  noted  for  its 
large  acre  yield.  High  elevation  has  the  same  effect  as  northern 
climate,  and  we  find  ideal  summer  climate  in  Colorado,  and  north 
through  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  the  northwestern  Pacific 
States.  Farther  south  or  in  regions  with  hot,  dry  summers,  it  is 
necessary  to  handle  the  crop  so  as  to  avoid  the  summer  heat.  This 
is  accomplished  in  the  South  by  planting  in  midwinter,  so  the  crop  is 
made  before  dry  summer  heat.  Sometimes  they  are  also  planted  in 
midsummer,  but  make  their  principal  growth  in  the  cooler  weather 
of  fall. 

Degeneration. — It  has  long  been  known  that  potatoes  continu- 
ously grown  in  regions  of  hot  summers  will  rapidly  degenerate  and 
become  unproductive.  In  the  South  they  find  it  necessary  to  buy 
seed  potatoes  from  the  North  every  year.  Maine  has  long  been  a 
great  seed-growing  center,  because  of  the  favorable  climate.  Also 
New  York  State,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  the  Red  River  Valley 
produce  good  quality  of  seed.  Good  seed  is  also  produced  at  high 
elevations  farther  south.  . 

At  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  2  a  very  interesting  experi- 
ment was  tried.  By  mulching  the  potato  ground  with  six  inches  of 
straw  it  was  possible  to  not  only  keep  the  soil  moist,  but  several  de- 
grees cooler  than  under  ordinary  culture.  Above  the  straw,  however, 
the  tops  were  exposed  to  even  greater  heat  than  ordinary.  It  was 
found  that  the  potatoes  grown  under  straw  retained  their  productive- 
ness for  years,  while  the  same  potatoes  under  ordinary  culture 
rapidly  degenerated.  Even  degenerate  potatoes  could  be  restored 
to  strong  vitality  and  productiveness  by  growing  under  straw  for 
one  year.  This  experiment  is  believed  to  demonstrate  the  im- 
portance of  a  cool,  moist  soil  for  growing  seed  potatoes. 

2  Annual  Report,  1912. 


KINDS  OF  FERTILIZER  USED  267 

Soils  for  Potatoes. — While  potatoes  are  often  grown  successfully 
on  heavy  soils,  it  is  generally  recognized  that  loose,  gravelly  or  sandy 
soils  are  best.  Advantages  claimed  for  loose  soils  are  that  (1)  the 
crop  is  easier  to  plant,  cultivate  and  dig;  (2)  the  potatoes  are 
smoother  and  of  better  quality;  (3)  fertilizer  and  manure  are  more 
effective;  (4)  potatoes  are  less  affected  by  diseases;  (5)  crop  is 
quicker  in  maturing. 

New  soils  are  also  recognized  as  excellent,  not  only  because  riqh 
in  organic  matter,  but  also  free  from  diseases'  that  affect  potatoes. 
A  rich  clover  sod  is  ideal,  and  it  is  generally  arranged,  where  pota- 
toes are  grown  in  rotation,  to  put  them  on  the  sod  land. 

Manures  and  Fertilizers. — Fertilizer  and  manure  is  used  in 
larger  quantity  on  the  potato  crop  than  any  other  farm  crop  in  the 
eastern  States,  as  they  are  an  intensive  crop  and  give  larger  returns. 
In  the  gravelly  potato  soils  of  Maine,  and  the  sandy  soils  of  Long 
Island  and  the  Atlantic  Coast,  potatoes  are  a  leading  A-op,  and  com- 
mercial fertilizer  is  customarily  applied  at  the  rate  of  1000  to  2000 
pounds  per  acre  each  year.  In  general  the  soils  in  these  districts  are 
low  in  organic  matter,  not  much  barnyard  manure  is  available  and 
it  is  not  the  general  practice  to  rotate  with  clover  or  grass  to  restore 
organic  matter.  The  land  is  in  potatoes  at  least  one-half  the  time. 

Farther  back  from  the  coast  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  New 
York,  where  potatoes  are  grown  on  the  land  only  once  in  4  or  5  years 
in  rotation  with  other  crops,  the  use  of  fertilizer  is  much  less.  On 
most  of  these  farms,  farmyard  manure  is  available  and  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  apply  it  on  sod  land  to  be  broken  for  potatoes.  Many  such 
farms  do  not  use  fertilizer  or  only  in  light  dressings  of  300  to  800 
pounds  applied  at  time  of  planting.  Surveys  show  that  about  one- 
half  the  farmers  of  this  region  use  fertilizers  and  then  seldom  above 
800  pounds  per  acre. 

In  the  Middle  and  Western  States,  fertilizers  are  used  in  the 
more  intensive  potato  growing  districts,  but  most  of  the  crop  in  these 
States  is  still  grown  on  new  land  or  in  rotation,  where  little  fertilizer 
is  required. 

Kinds  of  Fertilizer  Used. — As  pointed  out  heretofore  in  the 
text,  grasses  require  fertilizers  rich  in  nitrogen  to  stimulate  vegeta- 


268  IRISH  POTATOES 

tive  growth,  grains  usually  responding  best  to  phosphatic  fertilizers, 
while  potatoes,  in  common  with  root  crops,  respond  well  to  potash. 

In  general,  potato  fertilizers  are  low  in  nitrogen  and  high  in 
phosphate  and  potash,  the  relative  proportion  usually  being  about 
3-8-10  for  the  different  elements.  This  is  a  typical  fertilizer  exten- 
sively used  on  the  sandy  soils  of  the  Atlantic  Coast,  sandy  soils  being 
very  deficient  in  potash.  It  is  generally  believed  now,  however,  that 
the  proportion  of  potash  is  higher  than  necessary. 

In  the  interior  where  potatoes  are  generally  grown  on  heavier 
soils  and  in  rotation,  the  standard  fertilizer,  as  above,  is  generally 
used  in  smaller  quantity,  though  experiments  indicate  that  phosphate 
is  most  important.  Clay  soils  are  usually  well  supplied  with  potash 
which  is  made  available  by  decaying  organic  matter.  If  clover  is 
grown  in  the  rotation  or  farmyard  manure  is  used  for  the  potato  crop, 
there  is  not  much  need  of  adding  nitrogen  except  to  help  early  spring 
growth.  For  such  conditions,  a  fertilizer  containing  the  elements 
in  tKe  proportion  of  3—10—6  will  probably  be  about  right.  However, 
experimenting  is  needed  on  each  soil  to  determine  the  most  profitable 
fertilizer  to  use. 

Lime. — Much  of  the  land  where  potatoes  are  grown  is  quite 
deficient  in  lime.  On  such  soils  lime  will  frequently  give  very 
much  increased  yields.  On  the  other  hand,  lime  also  makes  favor- 
able conditions  for  certain  diseases  of  the  tuber,  especially  potato 
scab.  Where  potatoes  are  grown  continuously,  as  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  the  scab  soon1  becomes  so  bad  on  limed  soils  as  to  cause  great 
injury.  For  this  reason  few  of  the  growers  are  willing  to  use  lime. 
In  fact,  it  is  due  to  the  acid  soils  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  that  such 
smooth,  clean  potatoes,  free  from  disease,  can  be  produced  year  after 
year. 

Where  potatoes  are  grown  in  rotation  not  oftener  than  once  in 
four  years,  there  is  not  much  danger  from  scab  if  clean  seed  is 
planted.  It  is  often  necessary  to  use  lime  in  order  to  grow  clover 
and  grass  and  there  is  little  danger  of  undue  potato  scab  if  the  lime 
is  applied  only  once  in  four  years  and  then  at  least  two  or  three  years 
before  the  potato  crop. 

Rotations. — Where  potatoes  are  grown  as  a  regular  farm  crop, 
it  is  customary  to  grow  the  potatoes  after  sod.  No  place  is  better 


QUESTIONS  269 

than  a  good  clover  sod,  as  clover  not  only  leaves  a  good  supply  of 
nitrogen,  but  is  also  supposed  to  bring  considerable  from  the  sub- 
soil by  means  of  its  deep  roots. 

A  short  rotation  sometimes  used  is  wheat,  clover,  potatoes.  A 
longer  rotation  quite  common  in  the  East  is  oats,  mixed  clover,  grass, 
potatoes.  A  third  rotation  on  hill  lands  too  acid  to  grow  clover  is 
oats,  grass,  grass,  grass,  potatoes,  the  grass  not  cut  the  third  year  bur 
plowed  under  to  furnish  organic  matter. 


FIG.  106. — Intensive  potato  culture  on  a  Long  Island  farm,  under  the  "Skinner  system" 

of  irrigation. 

.     t 

Applying  Fertilizer. — When  fertilizer  is  applied  the  plant- 
ing is  usually  done  by  machinery.  In  this  case  the  fertilizer  is  dis- 
tributed in  the  row,  either  above  or  below  the  seed,  but  not  in  direct 
contact.  However,  it  is  not  considered  best  to  apply  more  than 
1000  pounds  per  acre  in  the  row,  but  if  more  than  this  is  used,  to 
spread  a  part  broadcast,  either  just  before  or  just  after  planting. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  the  relative  rank  of  potatoes  and  other  crops  in  the  world.    In  the 

United  States. 

2.  Give  the  relative  production  of  potatoes  in  the  continents. 

3.  Compare  potatoes  and  wheat  as  food  crops. 

4.  Give  the  principal  potato  growing  States,  and  yield  per  acre. 


270  IRISH  POTATOES 

5.  Compare  with  yields  in  foreign  countries. 

6.  Where  are  wild  potatoes  found?    When  first  cultivated  in  Europe? 

7.  Describe  a  potato  seed  ball;  a  potato  tuber. 

8.  Name  the  principal  characters  used  in  classifying  potatoes 

9.  How   is   color   of    sprouts    determined? 

10.  Name  the  principal  groups  of  potatoes. 

11.  Which  are  generally  early  varieties? 

12.  Name  the  principal  groups  grown  in  different  regions  of  the  United 

States. 

13.  Describe  a  good  market  type  of  potato. 

14.  Describe  the  structure  and  composition  of  a  potato  tuber. 

15.  Describe  favorable  climatic  conditions  for  potatoes.     Where  are  such 

conditions   found  in  the  United   States? 

16.  Describe  effect  of  hot  weather  on  degeneration  of  the  potato. 

17.  State  advantages  generally  credited  to  light  soils  for  potatoes. 

18.  State  the   present   practice   in   regard   to   the  use  of   fertilizers  with 

fertilizer  for  grass  or  grain  crops. 

19.  Why  is  less  fertilizer  used  where  potatoes  are  grown  in  rotation? 

20.  State  value  of  lime  for  potatoes  and  precautions  in  using  it. 

21.  Where  are  the  potatoes  generally  grown  in  the  rotation? 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
CULTURE  OF  IRISH  POTATOES 

CULTURAL  methods  differ  so  widely  for  local  reasons  that  it  would 
not  be  practical  to  describe  in  detail  the  various  methods  in  practice. 
Only  the  most  general  principles  of  wide  application  can.  be 
considered. 

Source  of  Seed. — The  degeneration  of  potatoes  under  hot  sum- 
mer climate  has  been  pointed  out.  Wild  potatoes  grow  in  high 
mountains  where  the  summer  temperature  is  cool,  and  cultivated 
potatoes  require  the  same  conditions. 

In  England,  where  the  summer  season  is  warm,  it  has  long  been 
recognized  that  seed  from  Scotland  was  much  more  productive  and 
numerous  experiments  have  proven  this.  The  Vermont  Station.1 
in  1905  imported  13  varieties  from  England  and  Scotland  and  grew 
them  in  Vermont  for  six  years  in  succession.  The  results  in  yield 
per  acre  were  as  follows : 


English  seed 

1905 
27.5 

1906 
54  9 

1907 
88  4 

1908 
869 

1909 
103  5 

1910 
169  5 

Scotch  seed 

82  3 

128  3 

236  7 

159  2 

143  1 

1705 

Per    cent   of 
ence  . 

differ- 
.    199.3 

133.7 

167.8 

83.2 

38.3 

.6 

The  first  three  years  the  difference  was  very  great,  but  as  they 
were  continually  grown  under  one  climate,  the  difference  became 
less  until  they  yielded  practically  the  same  the  sixth  year. 

A  very  interesting  demonstration  of  the  principle  was  made  at 
the  Ottawa  Experiment  Station  in  Canada.  The  climate  here  is 
usually  very  favorable,  and  four  varieties  which  were  grown  at  the 
station  for  sixteen  years,  1890-1905,  steadily  increased  in  yield,  as 
shown  by  following  data : 


Early  Rose    

n 

1890-93, 
bushels 
257 

Sfield  per  acre, 
1902-05, 
bushels 
317 

Gain  in 
bushels 
60 

State  of  Maine  . 

325 

361 

36 

Empire  State 

301 

338 

37 

Delaware 

296 

352 

56 

Vermont  Bulletin  172. 

271 


272  CULTURE  OF  IRISH  POTATOES 

Then  followed  three  dry  years,  in  which  yield  was  reduced  to  one- 
half,  and  the  potatoes  lost  vitality  and  ability  to  yield.  This  was 
demonstrated  by  importing  new  seed  from  Nappan,  Nova  Scotia,  in 
1909,  and  growing  beside  home-grown  seed.  Eesults  in  1909  were 
as  follows: 

Rose  Carmen      Vick's  extra  early 

Nappan  seed  215  198  171 

Home-grown  seed 44  83  74 

In  1910  seed  of  eleven  varieties  from  Indian  Head  was  brought 
in  for  comparison : 

Source  Average  yield  per  acre,  bushels 

Indian  Head  seed   368 

Home-grown  seed 96 

Other  data  could  be  cited,  but  the  above  is  sufficient  to  show  the 
injurious  effect  of  dry,  hot  weather  on  vitality  of  seed. 

In  general,  in  the  northern  tier  of  States,  potatoes  retain  vitality 
very  well,  but  further  south  good  seed  can  only  be  produced  as  a 
regular  practice  at  the  higher  elevations,  in  the  mountainous 
districts. 

Second  Crop  Seed. — In  the  South  the  difficulty  is  sometimes 
overcome  by  growing  what  is  known  as  "  second  crop  "  potatoes. 
These  are  planted  about  August,  and  develop  tubers  during  the  cooler 
fall  weather.  They  are  killed  by  frost  and  harvested  green.  These 
potatoes  have  good  vitality,  the  only  objection  being  that  they  are 
rather  slow  and  irregular  in  germinating  when  planted  the  following 
spring. 

Immature  Seed. — In  Europe  it  has  long  been  held  by  many  that 
seed  potatoes,  harvested  green,  had  greater  vigor  and  productive- 
ness than  mature  seed.  For  this  reason  many  growers  plant  their 
seed  stock  late,  so  the  vines  are  killed  by  frost  before  the  crop  is 
mature,  and  use  this  for  seed  rather  than  seed  that  has  normally 
matured. 

Storage  of  Seed. — Seed  stock  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  place, 
and  kept  solid  and  perfectly  dormant  until  planting  time.  This 
requires  a  temperature  of  30°  to  40°  F.  All  potatoes  are  very 
dormant  when  first  mature,  but  they  slowly  ripen  in  storage,  and, 


GREENING  SEED 


273 


after  two  or  three  months,,  will  sprout  readily  if  temperature  is  high 
enough.  Potatoes  will  also  shrink  if  the  temperature  is  too  high, 
and  this  is  also  considered  injurious.  If  long  sprouts  develop  in  the 
dark,  they  are  broken  off  in  handling  and  the  second  sprouts  are  not 
as  good  as  the  first. 

Sprouting  Seed. — Where  seed  has  been  held  dormant  it  is  good 
practice  to  move  the  seed  out  into  the  light  in  a  warm  place  about  ten 
days  before  planting  (Fig.  107).  This  will  start  the  eyes  into 


FIG.  107. — Comparing  tubers  sprouted  in  strong  light  and  in  darkness.  Both  tubers 
were  taken  from  same  lot  and  germinated  for  30  days.  The  one  on  left  in  greenhouse  in 
strong  light,  the  one  on  right  in  dark  chamber.  Note  long,  weak  sprouts,  and  shrunken 
tuber  due  to  germinating  in  dark.  Strong  light  "greens"  the  tuber  and  prevents  shrinkage 
to  a  large  degree, 

growth,  but  the  sprouts  should  not  become  long  enough  to  become 
injured  in  handling.  Advantages  claimed  for  this  method:  (1) 
any  dormant  seed  can  be  detected  and  discarded;  (2)  the  potatoes 
come  up  quicker  and  give  a  more  uniform  stand ;  (3)  seed  not  likely 
to  rot  if  soil  is  cold. 

Greening  Seed. — If  potatoes  are  placed  in  the  light,  they  turn 

a  greenish  color.     While  the  sprouts  start,  they  remain  short  and 

stout.     Potatoes  may  be  held  in  the  light  for  two  months  and  remain 

sound,  with  short,  stubby  sprouts.     In  the  light  only  the  strongest 

18 


274  CULTURE  OF  IRISH  POTATOES 

terminal  buds  start,  and  the  seed  is  usually  planted  whole.  This 
method  is  used  where  a  very  early  crop  is  desired,  especially  when 
the  planting  is  done  in  a  cold,  wet  soil,  where  seed  is  likely  to  rot. 
Frequent  experiments  in  comparing  sprouted  or  greened  seed  with 
dormant  seed  have  usually  shown  a  decided  increase  in  favor  of  the 
former.  This  is  especially  true  with  early  planting  in  cold,  wet  soils. 
Amount  of  Seed  to  Plant. — In  order  to  give  an  idea  about  how 
much  seed  is  required  to  plant  an  acre,  the  following  table  is  given. 
The  rows  are  assumed  to  be  three  feet  apart : 

Bushels  of  Seed  Required  Per  Acre 

Size  of  seed  piece 

Ounces      Hills  12  inches  apart  Hills  18  inches  apart  Hills  24  inches  apart 

1  16  12  8 

2  32  24  16 
4                           64                         48                         32 
8                          128                          96                          64 

In  general,  growers  in  the  United  States  use  from  12  to  15 
bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  while  in  Europe  they  frequently  plant  30  to 
40  bushels  of  seed. 

Many  experiments  have  shown  that  the  total  yield  will  increase 
with  rate  of  planting  up  to  30  to  40  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  How- 
ever, the  percentage  of  small  potatoes  also  increases  with  rate  of 
planting  under  average  conditions,  and  only  the  most  favorable 
climate  and  soil  justify  the  heavier  planting. 

Under  average  conditions  from  15  to  20  bushels  of  seed  per  acre 
will  give  the  maximum  yield  of  marketable  potatoes,  and  as  condi- 
tions are  improved  above  the  average,  the  planting  should  be  in- 
creased. This  is  illustrated  by  the  following  experiment  (Ohio 
Bui.  218)  : 

Relation  Between  Amount  of  Seed  and  Yield  of  Large  and  Small  Potatoes 

Yield  per  acre 

Seed,   bushels    Marketable         Small  Net  marketable 

Size  of  seed  per  acre  bushels  bushels  above  seed 

planted,  bushels 

One  'eye   10  164  25  154 

Two  eyes 15  204  31  189 

One-half  tuber  ....   25  217  35  192 

Whole  tuber 40  223  51  183 

It  was  also  shown  at  the  Ohio  Station  that  certain  varieties 
develop  more  sprouts  from  the  same  sized  seed  piece  than  others  and 
consequently  require  less  seed.  For  example,  the  maximum  yield 


DEPTH  OF  PLANTING  275 

of  Bovee  was  attained  with  15  bushels  of  seed  per  acre,  while  Carmen 
No.  3  required  25  bushels  for  maximum  yield. 

We  may  then  sum  up  the  main  factors  affecting  time  of  plant- 
ing as : 

(1)  Fertility  of  the  soil. 

(2)  Favorableness  of  climate  for  potatoes. 

(3)  Variety  used. 

(4)  Time  of  planting. 

Whole  vs.  Cut  Seed. — Small  whole  seed  is  frequently  used  for 
planting,  as  they  are  culls  from  the  marketable  potatoes  and  much 
cheaper.  Several  experiments  comparing  whole  and  cut  seed  of 
equal  size  have  usually  shown  an  advantage  for  the  whole  seed, 
though  results  are  variable  and  the  advantage  is  usually  not  large 
under  ordinary  favorable  conditions. 

The  greatest  advantage  for  whole  seed  is  found  in  the  South, 
where  the  early  crop  is  planted  in  midwinter  in  cold  ground  where 
cut  seed  is  likely  to  rot.  With  whole  seed  only  the  most  vigorous 
buds  at  the  seed  end  grow,  which  is  also  an  advantage  under  unfavor- 
able conditions.  For  these  reasons  large  quantities  of  cull  potatoes 
from  Northern  crop  are  used  as  seed  in  the  West  Indies  and  South 
Atlantic  States  for  winter  planting.  In  this  case  the  cull  seed  was 
grown  from  large  potatoes  each  year  and  is  quite  different  from  the 
continuous  use  of  culls  year  after  year  from  the  same  crop,  as  this 
results  in  slow  degeneration  of  the  stock. 

Some  growers,  however,  make  a  regular  practice  of  growing  small 
whole  seed  by  planting  large  potatoes  very  thick.  Such  seed  is  very 
desirable  and  is  preferred  for  early  crop  to  cut  seed. 

For  the  main  crop  in  the  North,  planted  at  a  favorable  time,  cut 
seed  from  large  tubers  is  to  be  preferred. 

Time  of  Planting. — In  the  Corn  Belt  and  southward,  planting 
is  early  in  order  to  get  as  much  growth  as  possible  before  the  heat  of 
midsummer.  In  the  North,  planting  is  late  to  utilize  the  cool  fall 
weather.  For  example,  in  the  Corn  Belt,  planting  is  general  in 
March  and  early  April,  while  in  New  York,  the  main  crop  is  planted 
about  June  first.  f 

Depth   of   Planting. — The  principal   considerations   are  the 


276  CULTURE  OF  IRISH  POTATOES 

effect  on  quality  and  yield  of  crop,  and  expense  of  planting  and 
digging. 

Deep  planted  potatoes  are  considered  of  best  quality,  as  they  are 
smoother,  none  are  sunburned,  and  they  are  more  uniform. 

Yield  is  usually  improved  with  planting  4  to  5  inches  below 
the  level  surface,  rather  than  shallower.  As  pointed  out  heretofore, 
new  tubers  arise  from  underground  stems  that  are  produced  at  the 
nodes.  It  is  claimed  that  deep  planting,  by  increasing  the  number 
of  underground  nodes,  favors  larger  yields.  This  theory,  however, 
'has  not  been  well  substantiated.  Deep  planting  is  a  disadvantage  in 
cold,  wet  soil,  when  quick  germination  and  an  early  crop  is  desired. 
For  this  reason  early  potatoes  should  be  planted  shallow  though  they 
may  be  covered  deeper  after  germination. 

In  practice,  potatoes  are  commonly  planted  shallower  than  four 
inches,  in  some  regions  only  two  inches  below  the  level.  Where  shal- 
low planting  is  practised,  the  soil  is  ridged  up  about  the  plants  in 
cultivating  in  order  to  provide  plenty  of  room  for  the  tubers,  and 
prevent  sunburn.  The  principal  reason  for  shallow  planting  is 
ease  in  harvesting,  especially  where  hand  digging  is  practised. 

Hill  vs.  Drill  Planting. — Where  machines  are  used,  drill  plant- 
ing is  the  general  practice,  and,  while  there  is  little  experimental  evi- 
dence, probably  gives  better  yields,  especially  where  large  quantities 
of  fertilizer  are  used,  as  the  roots  have  a  more  uniform  distribution 
in  the  soil. 

Hand  planting  is  practised  where  the  area  grown  is  small,  or 
where  hills  are  too  steep  for  machines.  In  some  regions,  as  northern 
New  York,  the  vines  are  so  heavy  that  hand-digging  is  necessary. 
Where  machinery  can  not  be  used,  hill  planting  has  several  advan- 
tages: (1)  easier  to  plant;  (2)  takes  less  seed;  (3)  easier  to  culti- 
vate; (4)  easier  to  dig. 

Level  vs.  Ridge  Cultivation. — It  is  the  general  custom  to 
throw  up  a  rather  high  ridge  around  the  potato  rows  or  hills.  It  is 
easier  to  kill  weeds  by  high  ridging,  and  also  makes  digging  much 
easier.  While  deeper  planting  and  level  culture  usually  give  some- 
what greater  yield,  the  labor  cost  is  greater  and  generally  believed 
to  offset  the  prospect  of  higher  yield.  The  ridging,  however,  can 


HARVESTING  THE  CROP 


277 


be  too  high,  injuring  some  roots  between  rows,  and  the  best  growers 
say  that  a  moderate  ridge,  4  to  5  inches,  is  best. 

Tools  for  Cultivation. — The  harrow  or  weeder  is  often  used 
first,  even  before  the  potatoes  are  up  if  weeds  appear  or  the  ground 
is  crusted  by  rains.  The  use  of  the  harrow  and  weeder  may  be  con- 
tinued until  the  crop  is  six  inches  high.  This  is  followed  by  culti- 
vators (Fig.  108),  usually  with  narrow  blades,  to  give  a  fine,  even 
surface.  If  weeds  start  in  the  row,  considerable  earth  is  ridged  up  to 
cover  them. 


FIG.   108. — A  good  type  of  cultivator.     The  rows  have  already  been  ridged  with  a  hiller. 

One  light  hoeing  is  usually  necessary  to  kill  all  weeds.  Cultiva- 
tion is  usually  continued  until  the  vines  cover  the  ground.  In  many 
places  a  sweep  plow  is  used  the  last  going  over,  to  ridge  up  and  make 
sure  that  no  tubers  will  be  exposed  to  the  sun.  This  practice  is  most 
common  on  shallow,  gravelly  soils,  where  the  potatoes  normally 
develop  very  near  the  surface.  In  deep  loam  soils  the  sweep  is 
seldom  used. 

Harvesting  the  Crop. — Special  harvesting  tools  have  evolved 
from  the  older  farm  tools  (Fig.  109).  The  spade  has  developed  into 
the  potato  fork,  the  hoe  into  the  potato  hook,  while  in  the  plow  the 
mould-board  has  been  replaced  with  iron  rods  in  the  simplest  form 


278 


CULTURE  OF  IRISH  POTATOES 


of  horse-digger,  while  elevators  and  sorters  have  been  added  in  the 
larger  diggers. 

About  one-half  or  more  of  the  potato  crop  is  dug  by  hand.  The 
hook  is  used  mostly  on  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  where  the  tubers  are 
shallow,  and  the  ridge  method  of  culture  is  practised.  The  potato 
fork  is  used  more  in  the  Western  States  on  deep  loam  soils,  where 
more  level  culture  is  practised  and  the  tubers  are  deeper. 

The  horse-diggers  are  generally  used  where  acreage  is  large  and 
the  land  level,  except  in  some  northern  regions  like  northern  New 
York,  where  the  vines  are  very  heavy  and  usually  green  at  digging 
time. 


FIG.  109.— A  large  potato  digger. 

Storage. — Potatoes  are  usually  stored  in  cellars,  field  pits,  or 
cold  storage  warehouses. 

The  principle  of  good  storage  is  to  keep  them  cool,  dry,  and  with 
good  ventilation  to  carry  off  moisture  as  the  potatoes  dry. 

Changes  in  Storage. — In  storage,  potatoes  undergo  certain 
changes.  Potatoes  when  first  ripe,  will  usually  not  germinate;  but 
they  undergo  a  slow  process  of  maturing  under  storage,  and  will 
usually  germinate  freely  in  two  to  three  months.  This  is  known  as 
the  dormant  period.  The  cooking  quality  also  changes,  the  potatoes 
becoming  more  mealy  when  cooked,  as  they  mature  under  storage. 


DISEASES  AND  INSECTS  279 

Shrinking  in  Storage. — Potatoes  always  lose  weight  in  storage. 
The  loss  is  slow  at  first,  usually  amounting  to  6  or  8  per  cent  in 
good  storage  during  the  first  six  months.  After  that  the  loss  is 
much  faster  and  will  sometimes  amount  to  4  or  5  per  cent  a  month  in 
the  spring  under  ordinary  cellar  conditions  where  the  temperature 
can  not  be  kept  down. 

The  loss  is  due  to  two  causes:  (1)  Loss  of  water,  and  (2)  loss  by 
respiration.  Loss  by  respiration  is  due  to  the  slow  conversion  of 
starch  into  sugar  and  finally  breaking  up  and  passing  off  as  carbon 
dioxide  gas.  Experiments  have  shown  that  about  75  per  cent  of  the 
loss  is  due  to  water  loss  and  about  one-fourth  due  to  respiration. 

Cold  Storage. — The  loss  by  respiration  also  goes  on  in  cold 
storage,  but  at  temperatures  below  32°  F.,  the  sugar  developed  does 
not  undergo  further  change  but  remains,  giving  the  potato  a  sweetish 
taste.  This  is  the  reason  cold  storage  potatoes  or  slightly  frozen 
potatoes  are  sometimes  sweet. 

For  table  stock  potatoes  should  be  held  at  40°  to  50°  F.,  while 
seed  stock  is  held  at  from  32°  to  40°  F. 

Diseases  and  Insects. — The  potato  plant  is  subject  to  a  large 
number  of  diseases.  Many  of  these  do  little  injury,  but  at  least  a 
dozen  are  severe  in  some  part  of  the  world  where  potatoes  are  grown. 

No  potato  disease  is  universally  injurious,  but  is  limited  to 
certain  regions.  All  of  the  diseases  are  influenced  by  climate  or 
soil,  and  hence  vary  in  their  injury  from  year  to  year. 

For  example,  the  late  blight  is  perhaps  the  most  injurious  disease, 
yet  there  are  large  regions,  as  the  Southwest,  where  it  is  seldom  seen. 
Even  in  the  eastern  States,  where  it  is  very  common,  there  are 
considerable  areas  in  which  late  blight  is  seldom  found.  Other  dis- 
eases are  not  considered  as  serious  in  northern  climates,  as  the  State 
of  Maine,  but  southward  are  very  injurious. 

A  brief  summary  of  the  principal  diseases  is  given  below : 

A.  Affecting  the  foliage  only: 

1.  Early  blight,  caused  by  AHernaria  solani. 

2.  Leaf  blotch,  caused  by  Cercospora  concors. 

B.  Affecting  chiefly  the  stems : 

3.  Brown  rot,  caused  by  Bacillus  solanacearum. 

4.  Black  leg,  caused  by  Bacillus  phytophthorus. 


280  CULTURE  OF  IRISH  POTATOES 

5.  Stem  blight,  caused  by  Corticium  vagum. 

6.  Fusarium  wilt,  caused  by  Fusarium  oxysporum. 

7.  Verticillium,  caused  by  Verticillium  albo  atrum. 
C.  Affecting  the  tubers  chiefly : 

8.  Common  scab,  caused  by  Streptothrix  scabies. 

9.  Powdery  scab,  caused  by  Spongospora  sublerranea. 

10.  Wart  disease,  caused  by  Chrysophlycetes  endobiotica. 

11.  Dry  rots,  caused  by  several  species  of  Fusarium. 


Fia.   110. — In  the  foreground  is  a  spot  where  a  dozen  plants,  in  a  good  field,  have  been 
killed  by  the  disease  rhizoctonia. 

12.  Bacterial  soft  rots,  caused  by  Bacillus  solanacearum  and 

B.  phytophthorus.,  and  other  bacteria. 

13.  Leak,  caused  by  Rhizopus  nigricans. 
D.  Affecting  all  parts  of  plants : 

14.  Late  blight,  caused  by  Phytopht'horus  infestans. 
Unfavorable  climate,  usually  hot,  dry  weather,  causes  sun  scald 

and    tip   burn.      Arsenical    poisoning    sometimes    results    from 
spraying. 

Of  the  above  diseases,  the  common  scab  is  most  abundant,  but  not 
very  injurious.  Late  blight  is  the  most  destructive  disease,  and 
probably  black  leg  is  next. 


CONTROLLING  VINE  DISEASES 


281 


Controlling  Tuber  Diseases. — The  diseases  transmitted  on  the 
exterior -of  the  tuber  are  treated  by  soaking  in  some  disinfectant  that 
will  destroy  the  disease,  but  not  the  eyes  of  the  potato.  Common 
scab  and  rhizoctonia  (Fig.  110)  are  the  most  common  diseases 
transmitted  on  the  tuber.  The  common  treatment  for  scab  is  to  soak 
tubers  in  formalin  solution  (one  pint  to  30  gallons  of  water)  for 
one  hour.  This,  however,  will  not  kill  rhizoctonia.  Black  leg  is 
killed  by  corrosive  sublimate  solution — one  ounce  to  seven  gallons  of 
water,  soaking  the  seed  for  ten  minutes. 


FIG.  111. — A  power  sprayer,  that  will  spray  seven  rows  at  one  time. 

As  the  latter  treatment  will  also  kill  scab,  it  is  advisable  to  use 
the  corrosive  sublimate  treatment,  thus  treating  against  both  diseases 
at  once. 

Controlling  Vine  Diseases. — Late  blight  is  the  principal  vine 
disease  to  be  contended  with.  This  is  controlled  by  the  use  of 
Bordeaux  spray  mixture  (Fig.  111).  Late  blight  (Fig.  112)  is  a 
fungous  disease,  growing  on  the  outside  of  the  leaves,  and  is  killed 
by  a  very  weak  solution  of  copper  sulfate,  which,  however,  does  not 
injure  the  leaf  if  properly  neutralized  by  lime. 

The  strength  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  is  expressed  as  3—3—50  or 


282  CULTURE  OF  IRISH  POTATOES 

5-5-50,  meaning  in  the  latter  case,  that  it  is  made  with  5  pounds 
of  copper  sulfate,  5  pounds  quicklime  and  50  gallons  of  water. 
Bordeaux  is  made  as  follows : 

Stock  solutions  are  first  prepared.  Slack  quicklime  by  slowly 
adding  water  until  in  a  fine  powder,  then  make  up  into  a  thin  paste. 

Copper  sulfate  solution  is  made  by  suspending  in  a  coarse  sack  in 
the  top  of  water,  as  the  solution  is  heavier  than  water  and  it  will  not 
dissolve  in  the  bottom  of  a  vessel. 

One  gallon  of  water  will  dissolve  three  pounds  of  copper  sulfate. 
This  is  called  a  concentrated  stock  solution.  A  barrel  of  each  stock 
solution  can  be  made  at  one  time,  as  it  will  keep  a  long  while. 


FIG.  112. — Potato  affected  with  the  rot,  resulting  from  late  blight. 

Mixing  Bordeaux. — To  mix,  place  two  barrels  on  a  platform 
somewhat  higher  than  the  spraying  mixture.  To  make  a  3—3-50 
solution,  take  one  gallon  of  copper  sulfate  solution  and  mix  with  25 
gallons  of  water  in  one  barrel ;  in  the  other  barrel  mix  enough  lime 
paste  to  equal  3  pounds  with  25  gallons  of  water;  then  allow  both 
solutions  to  run  at  one  time  into  the  sprayer  tank.  The  strength  of 
spray  used  varies  from  3-3-50  to  5-5-50,  using  the  stronger  mixture 
when  the  disease  is  giving  trouble  or  there  is  trouble  from  rains 
washing  off  the  mixture. 

Testing  the  Mixture. — When  the  mixture  is  made,  take  out  a 


CONTROLLING  VINE  DISEASES 


283 


sample  and  test  with  a  few  drops  of  potassium  ferrocyanide  solution. 
If  the  solution  turns  brown,  there  is  not  enough  lime,  but  there  will 
be  no  change  if  there  is  enough  lime.  There  should  be  some  excess 
of  lime  to  be  sure  the  copper  is  neutralized,  but  not  too  much,  as  the 
lime  will  clog  the  nozzles.  Lime  is  used  to  neutralize  the  copper  so 
it  will  not  burn  the  foliage,,  and  also  to  make  the  solution  more 
adhesive. 

Time  of  Spraying. — No  rule  can  be  given  as  to  the  time  to  begin 
spraying,  except  it  should  be  done  before  the  blight  has  opportunity 


FIG.   113. — A  good  field  of  potatoes.     Sprayer  at  work  in  the  distance. 

to  attack  the  crop.  The  blight  may  make  its  first  appearance  any 
time  from  midsummer  to  the  very  end  of  the  season,  or  not  appear 
at  all.  In  hot,  dry  weather  there  is  less  danger  than  in  wet  or  humid 
weather,  and  conditions  must  be  watched  closely. 

Generally,  it  is  best  to  give  the  first  spraying  when  the  plants  are 
less  than  a  foot  high,  in  order  to  cover  all  the  lower  leaves.  Apply 
other  sprayings  according  to  the  weather  or  rapidity  of  growth 
(Fig.  113). 

The  number  of  sprayings  given  in  practice  varies  from  3  to  10. 
If  the  disease  is  present,  and  weather  damp,  it  is  generally  agreed 


284  CULTURE  OF  IRISH  POTATOES 

that  one  spraying  a  week  should  be  given.  It  is  best  to  spray  just 
after  a  rainy  period  rather  than  before,  in  order  to  cover  the  new 
growth. 

Stimulating  Effect  of  Bordeaux. — Bordeaux  mixture  has  a  de- 
cided stimulating  effect  on  potato  foliage,  and  it  has  been  frequently 
observed  to  increase  yield  even  when  no  disease  appeared.  The  in- 
creased yield  usually  pays  the  cost  of  spraying,  even  without  blight. 

Insects  and  Insecticides. — For  the  potato  beetle  and  leaf -eating 
insects  it  is  customary  to  use  an  arsenic  poison,  either  as  Paris  green 
or  lead  arsenate.  When  spraying  with  Bordeaux  for  blight,  the 
poison  may  be  added  to  the  Bordeaux  mixture  at  the  rate  of  one- 
half  to  one  pound  of  Paris  green  per  50  gallons,  or  3  to  5  pounds  of 
arsenate  of  lead.  As  Paris  green  is  sometimes  injurious  to  foliage, 
being  slightly  soluble  in  water,  it  is  generally  preferred  to  use  arsen- 
ate of  lead,  which  is  absolutely  insoluble. 

For  spraying  poison  without  Bordeaux,  it  is  mixed  at  the  same 
rate  with  water. 

Potato  Improvement  and  Breeding. — Very  few  varieties  of 
potatoes  popular  30  to  40  years  ago  are  in  use  to-day.  Old  varieties 
are  constantly  replaced  with  new  and  more  vigorous  sorts,  or  im- 
proved strains  of  the  old. 

Origin  of  New  Varieties. — New  varieties  originate  in  three 
ways:  (1)  by  growing  new  plants  from  seed  balls;  (2)  by  sports  or 
mutations,  thus  at  once  producing  a  new  variety  by  bud  variation ; 
(3)  by  systematic  selection,  taking  advantage  of  small  variations. 

Potatoes  from  Seeds. — Seed  balls  may  be  produced  naturally, 
or  may  be  the  result  of  cross  fertilization,  thus  producing  hybrids. 
However,  many  cultivated  varieties  rarely  produce  seed  balls. 

If  the  seed  is  planted,  rather  small  plants  are  grown  the  first 
year.  Each  plant  will,  on  the  average,  produce  two  or  three  small 
tubers,  usually  not  larger  than  marbles,  but  occasionally  full  sized 
tubers. 

The  first  crop  from  seed  is  usually  quite  variable  and  permits  of 
considerable  selection,  and  many  new  varieties  have  been  produced  in 
this  way.  The  second  or  third  year  the  tubers  reach  full  size  and 
usually  remain  quite  true  to  type. 

Sports  or  Mutations. — Sports,  now  called  mutations,  are  new 


SYSTEMATIC  SELECTIONS  285 

forms  appearing  suddenly  from  an  old  established  form — for  ex- 
ample, a  white  potato  in  a  hill  of  red  variety,,  or  a  long  potato  in  a 
hill  of  round  variety.  Such  sudden  appearances  of  new  types  are 
recorded  and  have  been  preserved,  giving  us  new  varieties. 

Systematic  Selections. — Plant  breeding  is  simply  a  systematic 
way  of  finding  the  small  variations,  either  for  better 'or  worse,  that 
are  constantly  taking  place.  For  example,  if  100  potato  tubers  be 
selected  and  each  planted  in  a  separate  hill,  it  will  be  found  at  harvest 
time  that  certain  tubers  have  produced  two  or  three  times  the  yield  of 
others.  The  difference  is  to  a  large  degree  hereditary,  so  if  the 
highest  yielding  hills  are  saved  for  seed,  a  more  productive  stock  is  at 
once  secured.  This  practice  of  planting  a  certain  number  of  tubers 
separately  and  selecting  only  the  best  producing  hills  may  be  con- 
tinued from  year  to  year  with  gradual  improvement.  It  is  best 
to  use  rather  large  tubers  and  cut  each  into  four  parts,  as  four 
hills  from  each  will  give  surer  results  than  to  have  only  one  hill 
from  each. 

Outline  for  Describing  Potatoes 
Variety: 

1.  Early,  medium,  late. 
Shape : 

2.  Oblong,  round,  oblong-flat,  oval-round,  oval-flat. 

3.  Regular,  irregular. 
Size: 

4.  Large,  medium,   small. 

5.  Uniform,  not  uniform. 
Eyes: 

6.  Deep,  medium,   shallow. 

7.  Oval,  narrow,  elongated. 

8.  Large,  small    (as  compared  with  size  of  tuber), 

9.  Numerous,  medium,  few. 

10.  Uniformly  distributed,  mainly  at  bud  end. 

11.  Ridge  prominent,  ridge  not  prominent. 
Sprouts : 

12.  Color — yellowish- white,  pink,  blue,  purple. 
Skin: 

13.  Smooth,  rough,  netted,  lenticelled. 

14.  Color — yellowish-white,   light  russet,  dark  russet,  red,  pink,  blue. 
General  Characteristics: 

15.  Sample,  clean,  dirty. 

16.  Cracked,  not  cracked. 

17.  Disease  present,  disease  absent;  if  present,  scab,  dry  rot  or  blight; 

rhizoctonia,  sunburn,  grub,  or  wilt. 

18.  Bruised  or  not  bruised. 

19.  Mature,  immature. 
Flesh : 

20.  White,  yellowish,  pink. 


286  CULTURE  OF  IRISH  POTATOES 

Structure 
Cortical  Layer: 

21.  Thick,  thin. 
External  Medullary  Area: 

22.  Proportion — large,  small. 
Internal  Medullary  Area: 

23.  Large,  small. 

24.  Branched  much,  branched  little. 

25.  Light,  dark. 
Estimated  Cooking  Quality: 

26.  Mealy,  medium,  soggy. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

STUDY  OF  POTATO   TYPES 

Directions  for  Report. — Describe  each  of  the  11  samples  of  potatoes 
exhibited,  using  the  accompanying  descriptive  key  and  blank  outline.  The 
samples  here  shown  and  described  represent  approximately  the  character- 
istics of  each  of  the  main  variety  groups. 

Draw  natural  size  the  long  broadside  view  of  a  tuber  of  each  of  the 
above  groups,  paying  special  attention  to  size  and  shape  of  tuber,  size, 
shape  and  distribution  of  eyes. 

Draw  natural  size  the  transverse  section  of  a  tuber  of  each  of  these 
groups,  paying  special  attention  to  relative  proportion  of  cortex,  internal 
and  external  medullary  areas. 

Label  all  parts  carefully  in  right  hand  margin. 

From  your  knowledge  of  descriptive  characteristics  of  each  of  the 
main  groups,  list  the  extra  varieties  exhibited  under  the  proper  group,  i.e., 
Irish  Cobbler,  Triumph,  Rural,  Early  Michigan,  Rose,  Hebron,  Burbank, 
Early  Ohio,  Green  Mountain,  Pearl  and  Peachblow. 

MORPHOLOGY  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  POTATO  TUBER 

The  potato  tuber  as  a  part  of  the  system  of  lateral  underground  stems, 
corresponds  largely  in  its  morphology  to  aerial  stems.  It  serves  as  a 
storage  part  to  the  underground  stem  and  enables  the  plant  to  live  over 
from  one  year  to  another. 

Note  (a)  stem  end;  (6)  bud  end;  (c)  eye  buds;  (d)  eyebrows;  (e) 
arrangement  of  eyes  with  reference  to  stem  and  bud  end. 

Draw  a  tuber  natural  size  showing  correct  arrangement  of  eyes  and 
labelling  stem  end,  bud  end,  eyes  and  eyebrows. 

Indicate  on  your  drawing  by  dotted  lines  how  the  tuber  should  be  cut 
for  seed  purposes.  By  a  dash  line  indicate  the  phyllotaxy  of  the  tuber. 

Make  with  a  sharp  knife,  a  thin  longitudinal  and  a  thin  transverse  sec- 
tion of  a  tuber,  cutting  through  one  or  more  eyes  in  each  case.  Rinse  in 
water  and  examine  carefully. 

Observe  and  draw  natural  size  in  both  longitudinal  and  transverse  sec- 
tion a  tuber  showing  in  proper  proportion  (a)  internal  medullary  area; 
(6)  external  medullary  area;  (c)  cortex;  (d)  epidermis. 

Treat  a  thin  longitudinal  section  with  iodine  (5  per  cent  solution) ,  rinse 
in  water  and  observe  the  portion  of  greatest  starch  concentration.  Indicate 
by  labelling  in  your  drawing. 

Answer  the  following  subsequent  to  reading  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  295, 
pp.  5-13,  and  Cornell  Bulletin  No.  230,  pp.  508-512. 

1.  What  differences  in  composition  of  the  external  and  internal  medul- 
lary areas  ? 


QUESTIONS  287 

2.  What  mainly  is  the  composition  of  the  cortex?    Of  the  epidermis? 

3.  What  relation  between  internal  medullary  area  and  eyes? 

4.  (a)  What  constitutes  texture  in  a  tuber?     (&)  What  indicates  fine 
texture  in  a  tuber?     (c)   What  indicates  coarse  texture  in  a  tuber? 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  experiments  conducted  at  Vermont  and  Ontario,  Canada, 

on  the  source  of  seed. 
2. ,  What  merits  are  claimed  for  "  second  crop  "  seed?    For  immature  seed? 

3.  Why  is  low  storage  temperature  required? 

4.  Will  potatoes  sprout  better  after  storage? 

5.  What  advantages  claimed  for  sprouting  seed? 

6.  How  much  seed  required  to  plant  an  acre  ? 

7.  Does  yield  vary  with  rate  of  planting? 

8.  Under  what  conditions  is  whole  seed  used  rather  than  cut  seed? 

9.  How  is  time  of  planting  regulated? 

10.  Compare  the  merits  of  deep  and  shallow  planting.     Of  hill  and  drill 

planting.     Of  level  and  ridge  cultivation. 

11.  Give  the  ordinary  practice  in  cultivating  a  potato  crop. 

12.  What  tools  are  used  in  harvesting? 

13.  What  changes  take  place  in  storage? 

14.  Give  temperature  for  storing  seed  stock.     Table  stock. 

15.  What  are  most  destructive  diseases? 

16.  What  is  the  nature  of  a  "  disease  "  ? 

17.  Name  several  diseases. 

18.  Give  treatment  for  scab  and  rhizoctonia. 

19.  How  is  late  blight  controlled? 

20.  Tell  how  to  make  and  test  Bordeaux  mixture. 

21.  When  is  the  spray  applied? 

22.  Does  Bordeaux  have  any  other  effect  beside  killing  the  diseases? 

23.  Give  treatment  for  potato  bugs. 

24.  How  are  new  varieties  originated  from  seed  balls? 

25.  What  are  sports? 

26.  Describe  method  of  potato  breeding  by  hill  selection. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
SWEET  POTATOES 

THE  sweet  potato  belongs  to  the  Morning-Glory  family.  It  is  of 
tropical  origin,  probably  coming  from  the  West  Indies  or  South 
America.  The  plant  is  a  perennial  and  seldom  blossoms  or  produces 
seed  in  the  United  States.  The  blossom  is  very  much  like  that  of  a 
large  morning-glory  and  is  of  a  purple  color  (Fig.  115).  In  the 
North  sweet  potatoes  are  treated  as  an  annual,  and  not  as  a  perennial. 

The  Roots. — The  sweet  potato  differs  from  the  Irish  potato  in 


I 


FIG.  114. — A  single  sweet  potato  from  the  hot-bed,  showing  many  young  sprouts, 
the  difference  in  the  size  of  young  plants.     (^Experiment  Station,  .New  Jersey.) 


Note 


being  a  true  root.  The  Irish  potato  is  an  enlarged  underground 
stem,  its  various  parts  being  analogous  to  the  stems  above  ground. 
The  sweet  potato,  however,  is  an  enlarged  root. 

Origin  and  History. — Very  little  is  known  about  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  sweet  potato,  except  that  it  was  in  general  cultivation  by 
the  natives  of  South  America  when  first  visited  by  white  men.  The 
wild  form  has  never  been  discovered.  The  sweet  potato  has  at- 
tained considerable  culture  in  foreign  countries,  especially  in  China 
and  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its  culture  has  had  a  slow  de- 
velopment in  the  southern  States,  but  within  the  last  two  decades  the 
288 


MARKET  TYPES 


289 


use  of  the  sweet  potato  as  a  truck  crop  has  had  a  rapid  development. 
It  is  now  the  most  important  vegetable  next  to  Irish  potatoes. 

Types  and  Varieties. — While  there  are  many  varieties  of  sweet 
potato,  no  very  satisfactory  classification  has  ever  been  worked  out. 
They  are  sometimes  placed  in  two  groups,  called  vine  and  vineless 
potatoes,  the  term  "  vineless  "  applied  to  the  varieties  having  a  short, 
upright  vine.  It  has  also  been  attempted  to  subdivide  the  groups  on 
the  shape  of  the  leaf,  as  certain  types  have  deeply-lobed  cut  leaves, 
and  others  regular  leaves  with  uniform  edges ;  but  this  is  not  a  satis- 
factory character  to  use.  They  may 
also  be  grouped  as  dry  and  moist 
or  syrupy  types.  The  dry  types 
^are  usually  grown  in  the  North 
and  are  represented  by  the  Jersey 
Yellow  variety.  In  the  southern 
States  the  varieties  with  soft  flesh, 
sometimes  called  watery  or  syr- 
upy, are  usually  preferred.  Most 
of  the  varieties  of  so-called  "yams" 
in  the  South  belong  to  this  group. 
They  may  also  be  grouped  accord- 
ing to  color  of  tuber,  as  white, 
yellow,  or  pink.  Probably  a  hun- 
dred varieties  of  sweet  potatoes 
are  cultivated,  but  not  more  than 
a  dozen  of  these  are  very  exten- 
sively grown.  FlQ-  115-~Sweet  PO^to  ^af  and  blossom. 

Market  Types. — The  northern  market  usually  demands  a 
rather  dry  sweet  potato,  of  medium  size,  and  not  very  long  (Fig. 
116).  The  yellow  color  is  generally  preferred.  The  most  impor- 
tant varieties  in  the  northern  market  are  the  Big-stemmed  Jersey, 
the  Yellow  Jersey,  and  Red  Jersey.  The  first  of  these  varieties  is  the 
most  productive  and  preferred  by  the  truck  growers,  but  the  latter  two 
are  of  a  better  quality  and  suitable  for  the  home  garden.  In  the 
southern  States  the  Hayman,  a  soft-fleshed  variety,  is  very  popular. 
Several  of  the  yams,  which  differ  from  the  ordinary  sweet  potato  in 
being  short  and  thick,  somewhat  larger,  with  a  moist,  syrupy  flesh, 
19 


290 


< 


SWEET  POTATOES 


are  extensively  grown  in  the  South  for  home  use,  such  as  the 
pumpkin  yam,  the  Georgia  yam,  and  the  Florida.  Two  or  three 
other  varieties,  such  as  the  Black  Spanish  and  Red  Bermuda,  are 
grown  for  stock  feed,  due  to  their  great  productiveness. 

Where  Sweet  Potatoes  Are  Grown. — Over  ninety  per  cent  of 


FIG.  116. — Some  commercial  types  of  sweet  potatoes:  left  to  right,  long,  cylindrical  type; 
Jersey  group;  red  Bermuda;  southern  Queen. 

the  crop  is  grown  in  the  South.     The  ten  leading  States  in  1909  were 
as  follows,  according  to  the  Census : 

Sweet  Potato  Production,  1909 

Per  cent  increase 
States  Acres  in  ten  years 

United    States    641,255  19.3 

North  Carolina    84,740  23.3 

Georgia    .  84,038  19.0 

Alabama    66,613  31.0 

Louisiana     56,953  108.1 

Mississippi    56,045  46.8 

South  Carolina 48,878  0.1 

Texas    42,010  3.61 

Virginia     40,838  0.4 

Tennessee    26,216  12.2 

New  Jersey 22,504  9.3 

The  average  increase  for  the  United  States  since  1899  was  19.3 


1  Decrease. 


SOIL  FOR  SWEET  POTATOES 


291 


per  cent.     Texas  was  the  only  State  growing  a  large  acreage  to  show 
a  decrease. 

Climate  for  Sweet  Potatoes. — The  sweet  potato  requires  very 
warm,,  sunshiny  weather  for  good  growth.  For  best  results  it  should 
have  abundant  rain  during  the  first  half  of  its  growing  period,  but 
somewhat  dry  weather  as  it  matures.  If  there  is  too  much  rain 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  growing  season,  it  is  inclined  to  develop 
a  large  growth  of  vines,  with  many  small  potatoes  of  poor  quality. 
In  general,  the  climatic  conditions  found  in  southeastern  United 
States  is  quite  favorable  to  the  sweet  potato  crop. 


FIG.  117. — Map  showing  range  of  production  of  sweet  potatoes.  The  shaded  portion 
shows  the  area  adapted  to  commercial  growing.  The  dark  line  represents  the  northern 
limits  of  sweet  potato  culture  for  home  use.  (From  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  324.) 

Soil  for  Sweet  Potatoes. — Sweet  potatoes  can  be  grown  profit- 
ably on  many  soils  where  the  majority  of  farm  crops  would  fail.  This 
is  especially  true  if  the  soils  are  sandy,  as  they  do  remarkably  well  in 
sandy  soil.  Sweet  potatoes  also  respond  very  quickly  to  commercial 
fertilizers,  and  do  not  require  so  much  organic  matter  in  the  soil. 
This  makes  it  possible  with  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  to  grow 
sweet  potatoes  throughout  the  southern  States  on  much  of  the  light 
or  sandy  soil.  The  largest  crops  are  grown,  however,  where  a  rea- 
sonable amount  of  organic  matter  is  kept  in  the  soil  by  means  of 
manure  or  green  crops  plowed  under  in  connection  with  a  fair 
dressing  of  fertilizer.  While  sweet  potatoes  will  do  fairly  well  even 


292  SWEET  POTATOES 

on  heavy  soils,  the  lighter  type  of  soil  is  considered  decidedly  better. 
Good  drainage  is  especially  important  for  sweet  potatoes,  and  this  is 
one  reason  why  in  many  places  they  are  frequently  grown  on  high 
ridges.  Sweet  potatoes  on  wet  land  are  usually  coarse  and  poor 
in  quality. 

Manure  and  Fertilizers  for  Sweet  Potatoes. — If  barnyard 
manure  is  used,  it  should  be  well  rotted  and  usually  applied  to  the 
previous  crop,  although  in  light,  sandy  soils  it  is  very  commonly 
applied  directly  to  the  sweet  potato  crop.  Barnyard  manure  is  very 
beneficial  to  exhausted  soils,  but  with  fairly  fertile  soil  it  is  probable 
that  better  results  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 
Where  sweet  potatoes  are  grown  as  a  regular  crop,  it  is  considered 
very  beneficial  to  turn  under  a  green  manure  crop  about  a  month 
before  planting  the  sweet  potatoes.  Crimson  clover  is  generally 
agreed  to  be  about  the  best  crop  for  this  purpose. 

Sweet  potatoes  respond  exceptionally  well  to  commercial  fer- 
tilizers, and  they  are  generally  used  in  growing  the  crop  on  sandy 
land.  It  is  generally  believed  that  on  sandy  lands  potash  is  of  the 
greatest  importance,  and  phosphate  next,  in  making  the  fertilizers 
for  sweet,  potatoes.  Some  nitrogen  should  be  supplied,  but  not  an 
excessive  amount,  as  it  would  stimulate  too  large  a  growth  of  vines. 
In  general,  a  fertilizer  containing  about  four  per  cent  of  nitrogen, 
six  to  eight  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  eight  to  ten  per  cent  of 
potash  is  recommended.  On  clayey  soils,  however,  the  per  cent  of 
potash  can  be  somewhat  reduced  to  advantage. 

Applying  Fertilizers. — Ordinarily  about  300  to  400  pounds  of 
fertilizers  are  applied  per  acre,  but  in  the  trucking  regions  along  the 
Atlantic  Coast  1000  or  1200  pounds  are  frequently  applied.  When 
300  or  400  pounds  are  used,  it  is  generally  applied  under  the  sweet 
potato  row  a  week  or  two  before  planting,  but  the  larger  amount  is 
generally  applied  broadcast. 

Preparation  of  Land. — The  sweet  potato  crop  should  be  grown 
in  a  regular  rotation,  coming  on  the  same  land  not  oftener  than  once 
in  three  or  four  years.  It  is  best  to  precede  the  sweet  potatoes  with 
a  cultivated  crop,  such  as  corn  or  cotton,  in  which  a  cover  crop,  such 
as  crimson  clover  or  hairy  vetch,  has  been  fall-sown.  The  plowing 
tinder  of  such  a  cover  crop  seems  to  be  an  ideal  preparation  for  sweet 
potatoes. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS  293 

The  depth  of  plowing  will  be  controlled  somewhat  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil.  On  very  deep,  loamy  soils  it  is  not  always  desirable 
to  plow  deeply,  as  it  tends  to  make  the  sweet  potatoes  long  and 
spindle-shaped.  The  market  requires  a  -rather  short,  well  rounded 
potato.  On  deep  soils  sometimes  the  plowing  does  not  exceed  four 
inches  in  depth,  but  experience  on  each  type  of  soil  is  the  best 
guide  in  depth  of  plowing.  On  soils  with  compact  clay  subsoil  there 
is  little  danger  from  deep  plowing. 

Ridging  and  Level  Culture. — Sweet  potatoes  are  most  com- 
monly planted  on  ridges.  These  ridges  are  commonly  prepared  by 
first  opening  up  a  furrow,  in  which  200  to  400  pounds  of  fertilizer 
per  acre  is  distributed.  This  furrow  is  then  covered  with  a  back 
furrow,  forming  a  sharp  ridge.  Just  before  planting  this  ridge  is 
partly  levelled  with  a  board  scraper  or  harrow,  giving  a  nice  moist 
soil  in  which  to  put  the  plants.  The  subsequent  cultivation  main- 
tains the  ridge.  There  is  no  very  good  evidence  that  the  ridge  method 
is  superior  over  level  planting,  and  many  growers  fit  the  land  with- 
out ridging,  and  give  level  culture.  On  wet  or  cold  soils  the  ridging 
method  probably  has  some  advantage,  but  in  other  cases  it  is  largely 
a  matter  of  convenience  and  choice  on  the  part  of  the  grower.  Prob- 
ably the  greatest  advantage  claimed  for  the  ridging  system  is  that 
it  facilitates  digging. 

Propagation  of  Plants. — Sweet  potatoes  are  propagated  in  two 
ways :  (1)  by  plants  grown  directly  from  the  roots;  (2)  by  slips  cut 
from  growing  vines.  All  the  early  crop  is  grown  from  plants,  but 
many  growers  will  produce  a  part  of  their  late  crop  from  slips. 
Plants  are  grown  mostly  from  the  smaller  sized  potatoes  sorted  from 
the  main  crop.  Whether  using  these  small  potatoes  continually  will 
have  the  effect  of  reducing  the  crop  in  time  has  never  been  demon- 
strated, but  since  the  custom  has  been  long  in  practice  without 
apparent  ill  effect,  it  is  believed  they  are  satisfactory  seed.  It  is 
the  custom,  however,  to  throw  out  all  the  misshapen  roots  and  use 
only  smooth  and  shapely  potatoes  of  small  size.  Most  growers  prefer 
"  slip  seed  "  rather  than  that  grown  from  the  regular  crop,  as  it  is 
usually  free  from  disease  and  thought  to  produce  more  vigorous 
plants.  For  this  purpose  many  growers  put  out  a  small  area  of  slips 
each  year  for  growing  the  seed  stock. 


294 


SWEET  POTATOES 


Preparation  of  the  Hot-bed. — The  hot-bed  should  be  prepared 
from  four  to  six  weeks  before  the  sets  are  wanted.  The  commonest 
method  is  to  prepare  a  shallow  excavation  of  the  proper  size.  In  the 
bottom  of  this  six  to  eight  inches  of  fresh  barnyard  manure  is  well 
tamped  in.  This  is  covered  then  with  about  three  or  four  inches 

of  loose,  sandy  soil.  It  is  best 
not  to  plant  until  the  hot-bed 
has  had  time  to  reach  its. 
maximum  heat  and  cool 
down  again  to  a  temperature 
of  90°.  This  will  usually 
take  about  four  days.  The 
seed  potatoes  are  then 
placed  in  the  hot-bed,  either 
by  laying  them  on  their 
sides,  as  closely  as  they  can 
be  placed,  or  else  by  pushing 
them  into  the  soil  in  an  up- 
right position.  The  bed 
should  then  be  covered  with 
sandy  soil,  so  that  the  po- 
tatoes are  about  two  inches 
below  the  surface.  The  hot- 
bed should  be  kept  well 
watered,  but  not  saturated, 
as  there  is  some  danger  of 
the  seed  rotting;  however, 
it  is  very  important  that  the 
bed  never  be  permitted  to 
get  dry,  as  it  will  greatly  re- 

FJG.  118.-Sweet  potato  plant  ready  to  set  in  field.    duce    the    Dumber    of    plants 

(Fig.  118). 

Number  of  Plants. — In  estimating  the  size  of  the  hot-bed,  from 
forty  to  fifty  square  feet  should  be  allowed  for  each  barrel  of  seed. 
A  barrel  of  seed  should  produce  5000  plants  on  the  first  pulling,  and 
a  total  of  8000  or  9000  when  the  second  and  third  pulling  are  com- 
pleted. As  it  takes  about  10,000  plants  for  an  acre,  the  grower 


SETTING  THE  PLANTS  295 

should  allow  two  barrels  to  the  acre  if  he  wishes  to  plant  all  from 
the  first  pulling,  or  one  barrel  to  the  acre  if  he  utilizes  his  second  and 
third  crop  of  plants.  The  first  crop  of  plants  should  be  ready  in  five 
or  six  weeks ;  the  second  crop  ten  days  or  two  weeks  later ;  and  the 
rest  of  the  plants  Trill  be  removed  in  about  two  weeks  more. 

Pulling  the  Plants  for  Planting. — The  plants  should  be 
pulled  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  disturb  the  seed.  As  soon  as  pulled, 
it  is  best  to  dip  the  plant  roots  into  a  thin  paste  made  from  clay  and 
cow  manure.  They  should  then  be  packed  closely  into  crates  in  an 
upright  position.  As  soon  as  the  plants  have  been  pulled,  the  beds 
should  at  once  be  wet  down,  in  order  to  settle  the  soil  and  stimulate 
the  new  growth  of  plants. 

Setting  the  Plants. — It  is  generally  considered  best  to  set  the 
plants  if  possible  during  a  rainy  season ;  however,  if  the  land  has 


FIG.   119. — Transplanting  machine. 

been  handled  in  such  a  way  as  to  conserve  the  moisture,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  set  the  plants  with  fairly  good  results  even  in  a  dry  time. 
Where  ridges  have  been  prepared  a  week  or  two  in  advance,  they 
should  be  scraped  down  to  moist  soil  just  before  planting.  Where 
transplanting  machines  are  used  (Fig.  119),  however,  they  are 
fitted  to  deposit  a  quantity  of  water  with  each  plant,  and  hence 
planting  may  take  place  at  any  time. 

Hand  planting  is  generally  practised  where  the  area  is  not  too 
large,  but  transplanting  machines  are  used  for  large  acreage.  Many 
simple  devices  are  used  to  assist  in  hand  planting.  The  plants  are 
usually  distributed  along  the  row  a  proper  distance  apart,  just  ahead 
of  the  planter.  If  it  is  a  rainy  period,  the  plants  may  be  set  by 
simply  placing  a  blunt  stick  on  the  root  end  of  the  plant  and  pushing 
it  into  the  ground.  Where  more  care  is  required,  the  soil  is  usually 


296  SWEET  POTATOES 

opened  wth  a  small  trowel  or  dibble,  and  the  plant  well  pressed 
into  the  soil.  A  good,  expert  man  can  set  by  hand  one  acre  a  day 
if  the  plants  are  distributed  for  him.  Four  to  five  acres  a  day  can 
be  planted  with  a  transplanting  machine. 

Distance  Apart  for  Plants. — Sweet  potatoes  are  usually  placed 
in  rows  three  and  one-half  or  four  feet  apart,  although  the  vine- 
less  or  bunch  varieties  may  be  set  somewhat  closer.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  space  them  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row,  although  on 
rich  land,  where  the  potatoes  are  likely  to  be  over-sized,  it  is  an 
advantage  to  set  somewhat  closer.  The  above  spacing  will  require 
about  10,000  plants  per  acre. 

Cultivation  of  Sweet  Potatoes. — The  ordinary  tools  used  for 
cultivating  corn  or  cotton  are  well  adapted  for  use  in  the  sweet 


FIG.   120. — Special  plow,  fitted  with  two  rolling  coulters  for  digging  sweet  potatoes. 

potato  crop.  Usually  one  hoeing  is  required  to  clear  grass  and 
weeds  from  the  rows.  Late  in  the  season  when  the  vines  become 
long,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  lay  the  vines  aside  for  the  last 
cultivation.  Some  cultivators  have  an  attachment  for  lifting  the 
vines  at  the  last  cultivation. 

Harvesting.  ^-The  tim,e  of  harvesting  depends  somewhat  on 
market  demands.  In  trucking  sections  they  may  begin  harvest 
when  the  first  potatoes  are  large  enough  to  market,  but  the  crop  is 
always  cut  short,  as  the  smaller  potatoes  continue  to  grow  for  several 
weeks  after  this  period.  The  standard  varieties  are  usually  har- 
vested in  about  four  and  a  half  months  after  planting.  It  is  best 
to  harvest  before  severe  frost.  If  the  vines  are  killed  by  frost  and 
not  cut  off  at  once,  the  rotting  vines  will  soon  injure  the  sweet 
potatoes. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  PITS  297 

Tools  for  Harvesting. — The  plow  has  been  modified  in  many 
ways  for  'harvesting  sweet  potatoes  (Fig.  120).  Generally  a 
rolling  coulter  is  put  on  the  plow  to  cut  the  vines.  With  such  a 
plow  the  first  furrow  may  be  run  with  the  land  side  next  to  the  sweet 
potato  row,  while  the  second  furrow  is  gauged  to  turn  out  the  pota- 
toes. Also  plows  are  fitted  with  two  rolling  coulters  spaced  about 
twelve  inches  apart,  and  the  sweet  potato  row  may  then  be  turned 
out  with  the  first  furrow.  The  regular  large  potato  digger  used  for 
digging  Irish  potatoes  can  also  be  used  for  sweet  potatoes,  but  is 
not  altogether  satisfactory,  as  it  usually  bruises  them  up  more  or 
less. 

Storing  Sweet  Potatoes. — Methods  of  storing  sweet  potatoes 
vary,  from  placing  them  in  very  simple  pits  to  well  equipped  and 
especially  built  warehouses.  The  main  principle  in  storing  is  to 
first  cure  the  potatoes,  which  really  means  drying  out  the  excessive 
moisture,  and  takes  three  to  four  weeks.  The  moisture  should  be 
dried  out  at  rather  high  temperature,  anywhere  from  80°  to  100°. 
After  this  the  potato  should  be  slowly  reduced  to  a  temperature  of 
50°  or  60°  and  held  without  disturbing  until  used.  To  facilitate 
the  curing  or  drying  out,  provision  must  be  made  for  ventilation, 
and  if  they  are  to  be  cured'  in  large  quantities,  usually  provision  must 
be  made  for  heating. 

Construction  of  Pits. — A  simple  outdoor  pit  is  made  by  first 
digging  a  slight  excavation  in  a  high,  elevated  place.  If  the  pit  is 
a  large  one,  ventilation  should  be  provided  in  the  bottom  by  making 
shallow  trenches  covered  with  slats  or  brush,  with  a  board  ventilator 
in  the  center.  The  potatoes  are  piled  in  the  pit  and  lightly  covered 
with  straw  until  they  have  gone  through  the  sweating  process. 
They  may  then  be  more  heavily  covered  with  straw,  and  when  cold 
weather  comes,  a  covering  of  dirt.  Permanent  board  covered  pits 
are  also  made  in  a  simple  way  and  .are  satisfactory  if  good  provision 
is  made  for  ventilation. 

Where  large  warehouses  are  built  (Fig.  121),  the  walls  are  made 
reasonably  tight,  but  good  provision  is  made  for  ventilation.  Slatted 
bins  are  made  in  the  warehouse,  so  that  there  is  circulation  of  air 
underneath  the  bins  and  on  all  sides.  Usually  some  provision  is 
made  for  heating,  so  that  a  circulation  of  warm  air  can  be  kept  up 


298 


SWEET  POTATOES 

A 


8xa  Ve/?//'/a/or  oe/fa/cfe 
ftoof. 


PIG.  121. — Storage  houses.     Upper  figure,  a  large  ventilated  storage  house.     Lower 
figure,  a  covered  pit  or  cellar.     (From  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  548.) 


DISEASES  AND  INSECTS 


299 


while  the  potatoes  are  curing.  As  long  as  moisture  condenses  during 
cool  nights  on  the  roof  or  walls  of  the  warehouse,  good  ventilation 
should  be  provided,  but  when  the  potatoes  have  been  well  cured,  the 
house  may  be  shut  up  reasonably  tight,  and  they  will  generally  keep 
for  several  months.  Disturbing  the  potatoes  causes  them  to  rot, 
so  that  a  bin  should  be  marketed  as  soon  as  it  is  opened. 


FIG.   122. — Sweet  potato  affected  with  black  rot,  and  plant  affected  wi.th  same  disease. 
(After  Halstead,  New  Jersey  Bulletin  76.) 

Diseases  and  Insects. — The  sweet  potato  is  quite  free  from 
injurious  diseases  and  insects.  The  most  destructive  disease  is 
known  as  black  rot.  Black  rot  (Fig.  122)  gives  some  trouble  in 
the  field,  but  is  most  injurious  in  the  warehouses.  It  appears  as 
rather  large  black  spots  on  the  potato,  soon  causing  the  rot.  The 
principal  method  of  control  is  to  provide  against  infection  in  the 
field.  It  is  usually  carried  over  in  the  soil  or  on  the  plants.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  to  use  seed  free  from  the  disease.  For  this 
reason  many  growers  use  seed  grown  from  slips,  planting  it  in  soil 


300  SWEET  POTATOES 

where  potatoes  have  not  been  grown  in  recent  years,  in  this 
way  getting  disease-free  seed.  Other  rot  diseases,  known  as  stem 
rot,  soft  rot,  and  dry  rot,  are  less  common,  but  similar  in  their  attack 
to  the  black  rot.  They  are  all  controlled  much  in  the  same  way, — 
namely,  rotation  of  crops  and  use  of  clean  seed. 

The  sweet  potato  borer  is  the  only  insect  that  injures  the  plant 
to  any  extent.  Its  injury  is  caused  by  boring  through  the  sweet 
potato  tubers,  and  sometimes  it  is  the  cause  of  considerable  injury 
along  the  Atlantic  Coast. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

SWEET    POTATOES 

1.  Compare  the  structure  and  anatomy  of  a  sweet  potato  and  Irish 
potato  tuber.     Does  the  sweet  potato  have  similar  cortical  and  medullary 
parts?     Does  it  have  the  same  kind  of  eyes?      (See  laboratory  exercise  on 
Irish  potatoes.) 

Draw  longitudinal  sections  of  sweet  potato  and  Irish  potatoes. 
Place  both  sweet  potato  and  Irish  potato  in  a  moist  chamber  in  a  warm, 
dark  place.    Make  drawings  illustrating  the  origin  of  sprouts  on  both. 

2.  If  possible  the  students  should  take  part  in  making  a  hot-bed,  set- 
ting plants  or  in  any  other  field  operations  that  may  be  under  way  in  the 
neighborhood. 

3.  Storage  Experiment. — Place  a  half-bushel  of  freshly  dug  sweet  pota- 
toes in  a  tight  box  or  can,  and  a  second  lot  in  a  ventilated  crate.     Make 
notes  on  comparative  keeping  quality  under  the  two  conditions. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  the  sweet  potato  resemble  the  morning-glory? 

2.  Compare  the  tuber  of  the  sweet  potato  and  the  Irish  potato. 

3.  Give  the  history  of  sweet  potatoes. 

4.  Describe  the  principal  types  of  sweet  potatoes. 

5.  Where  are  sweet  potatoes  grown  principally? 

6.  Describe  best  climatic  and  soil  conditions. 

7.  State  the  best  manure  and  fertilizer  treatment  for  sweet  potato  land. 

8.  Compare  merits  of  ridge  and  level  culture. 

9.  Describe  briefly  all  the  details  in  propagating  sweet  potato  plants. 

10.  Describe  methods  of  setting  plants. 

11.  Describe  methods  of  harvesting. 

12.  Principles  to  be  observed  in  storing. 

13.  Describe  construction  of  pits.     Storehouses. 

14.  Describe  the  principal  diseases  and  their  control. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

CLASSIFICATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FORAGE 

CROPS 

FORAGE,  in  the  broadest  sense,  means  any  kind  of  feed  for  stock, 
including  cereals  or  by-products,  as  well  as  hay  or  pasture  plants. 
In  common  usage,  however,  forage  means  plants  that  are  fed  whole, 
in  either  the  green  state  or  dried  state.  Grass,  millets,  clover,  and 
alfalfa  are  always  called  forage  plants.  Eoot  crops  grown  for  stock 
feed  are  also  spoken  of  as  "  forage  roots." 

Corn  is  considered  a  grain  crop  in  the  corn  belt,  but  when  the 
whole  plant  is  harvested  and  cured  as  fodder  or  put  in  the  silo  corn 
is  considered  a  forage  crop.  Also  oats,  wheat,  and  barley  are  often 
cut  before  mature  and  cured  as  hay,  when  they  are  classed  as  forage. 

Classification  of  Forage  Crops. — In  taking  the  Census  the 
United  States  Government  has  classed  the  forage  plants  into  certain 
convenient  groups.  The  classes  and  their  relative  importance  are 
shown  in  the  following  table : 

Acreage,  Production  and  Value  of  Hay  and  Forage  for  1909  by  Classes 


Acres 

Production 

Value 

Timothy  alone 

14  686  393 

Tons 

17  985  420 

Dollars 

188  082  895 

Timothy  and  clover  mixed 

19  542  382 

24  748  555 

257  280  330 

Clover  alone 

2,443  263 

3  158  324 

29  334  356 

Alfalfa 

4,707  146 

11  859  881 

93  103  998 

Millet  or  Hungarian  grass  

1,117,769 

1  546  533 

11  145  226 

Other  tame  or  cultivated  grass.  .  .  . 
Wild,  salt  or  prairie  grasses  

4,218,957 
17,186,522 

4,166,772 
18  383  574 

44,408,775 
91  026  169 

Grains  cut  green  

4,324,878 

5,367  292 

61  686  131 

Coarse  forage 

4  034  432 

9  982  305 

46  753  262 

To  understand  more  clearly  just  what  is  included  in  each  class, 
the  following  quotation  from  instruction  for  clerks  in  tabulating  the 
Census  is  given : 

(a)  Tabulate  as  "clover  alone"  all  crops  reported  after  that  designa- 
tion, as  well  as  all  reported  as  "  alsike,"  "  red  clover,"  "  crimson  clover," 
also  other  clovers  unmixed  with  other  grasses.  The  same  crops  reported  as 

301 


302  FORAGE  CROPS 

mixed  with  timothy  or  herd's  grass  should  be  tabulated  as  "  timothy  and 
clover  mixed."  When  reported  as  mixed  with  grasses  other  than  timothy 
or  herd's  grass,  they  should  be  tabulated  as  "  other  tame  or  cultivated 
grasses." 

(6)  Tabulate  as  "other  tame  or  cultivated  grasses"  all  crops  reported 
after  that  designation,  as  well  as  all  reported  as  "  redtop,"  "  June-grass," 
"  orchard-grass,"  "  Blue-grass,"  and  "Johnson  grass";  also  all  combinations 
of  these  grasses  with  any  of  the  clover  crops  mentioned  in  paragraph  a, 
preceding  or  with  timothy. 

(c)  Tabulate  as  "wild,   salt  or  prairie  grasses"  all  crops  reported 
after  that  designation,  as  well  as  all  those  reported  as   "  marsh  grass," 
"  swamp    grass,"    "  slough    grass,"    "  bluestem,"    "  daisies  "    and    "  butter- 
cups." 

(d)  Tabulate  as  "  grains  cut  green  "  all  crops  reported  after  that  desig- 
nation without  specific  names,  or  with  the  name  "  oats,"  "  wheat,"  "  bar- 
ley," "  rye,"  "  peas,"  "  cow  peas,"  "  soy  beans,"  "  velvet  beans,"  or  "  vetch." 
Keep  a  memorandum  of  the  names  of  all  crops  reported  with  specific  names 
and  tabulated  as  "  grains  cut  green." 

(e)  Tabulate  as  "coarse  forage"  all  crops  reported  after  that  desig- 
nation without  specific  names,  or  with  the   name  "  corn,"   "  sweet  corn," 
"  cane/'  "  sorghum,"  "  Kaffir  corn,"   "  Jerusalem  corn,"  "  milo  maize  "  or 
kindred  crops. 

Acreage  of  Forage  Crops. — Only  about  one-fourth  of  the  land 
of  the  United  States  is  classed  as  improved  land.  Approximately 
one-half  of  this  is  in  cultivated  crops,  mostly  cereals  and  cotton,  and 
one-half  in  hay  and  forage  (Fig.  123). 

The  unimproved  land  includes  not  only  the  mountains,  deserts, 
and  great  range  lands,  but  also  some  land  in  farms  which  has  never 
been  plowed  or  improved,  as  woodland  and  marshes.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  unimproved  land,  however,  is  pastured,  and  while  its 
pasture  value  has  never  been  estimated,  the  aggregate  would  repre- 
sent a  large  figure. 

In  Chapter  I  data  are  given  showing  the  relative  value  of  the 
hay  and  forage  crops,  but  no  estimate  has  ever  been  made  of 
pastures. 

Where  Forage  is  Grown. — In  the  Census  of  1909  data  were 
taken  on  the  amount  of  improved  land  in  hay  and  forage.  A  most 
striking  difference  is  shown  between  the  southern  States,  where  only 
5  per  cent  of  the  land  is  in  hay  or  forage,  compared  with  52  per  cent 
in  New  England. 

New  York  is  similar  to  New  England,  and  if  the  pasture  land  be 
added,  it  will  be  found  that  in  these  States  80  to  90  per  cent  of  the 
improved  land  is  in  pasture,  hay,  and  forage. 


WHERE  FORAGE  IS  GROWN 


303 


304  FORAGE  CROPS 

Dominant  Types  of  Forage. — The  United  States  can  be 
roughly  divided  into  three  great  districts,  according  to  the  dominant 
type  of  cultivated  forage. 

1.  Timothy-Red  clover  region  includes  all  north  of  the  Ohio 
River  and  east  of  the  Missouri  River.     Considerable  redtop  is  grown 
in  New  York  and  New  England,  and  something  of  all  common 
grasses  and  clovers,  but  90  per  cent  of  the  sown  meadows  are  in 
timothy  and  red  clover,  either  sown  separately  or  as  a  mixture. 

2.  Cow  pea -Bermuda -Johnson  grass  region  is,  in  general, 
south  of  the  Ohio  River  and  westward,  including  Texas  and  Okla- 
homa.   Very  little  timothy  or  red  clover  is  grown  south  of  Kentucky. 
While  cow  peas  are  extensively  planted  in  this  region,  very  little 
either  of  Bermuda  or  Johnson  grass  is  sown.     Both,  however,  are 
widely  distributed  as  native  plants  and  come  in  voluntarily  on 
cultivated  fields. 

3.  Alfalfa  districts  include  practically  all  the  land  west  of  the 
Missouri  River  where  sufficient  moisture  is  available.     It  is  exten- 
sively grown  in  all  irrigated  districts. 

Grain  hay,  however,  is  more  important  than  alfalfa  in  the  three 
Pacific  Coast  States. 

Wild  hay  is  the  principal  hay  in  a  large  district,  including  the 
States  from  Oklahoma  northward  to  Canada,  and  Minnesota  and 
Iowa. 

Blue-grass  and  white  clover  as  pasture  plants  grow  abundantly 
on  all  good  lands  north  of  Tennessee  and  Oklahoma.  South  of  this 
line  they  both  grow  well  during  the  winter  months,  but  suffer 
severely  during  summer. 

Increasing  Production. — In  all  the  northeastern  States  the 
area  in  hay  and  pasture  has  been  steadily  increasing  since  1860. 
This  is  primarily  due  to  two  causes :  ( 1 )  The  growth  of  great  cities 
making  a  market  for  hay  at  profitable  prices  and  the  resulting  de- 
velopment of  the  dairy  industry  to  supply  cities  with  milk.  (2)  The 
development  of  the  great  grain-growing  regions  in  the  West  made 
grain  growing  less  profitable  in  the  East,  and  farmers  have  turned  to 
the  more  profitable  hay  crop. 

Yield  and  Prices  of  Hay. — The  yield  of  hay  is  about  1.4  tons 
per  acre  for  the  United  States,  and  only  exceeds  this  average  in  a 
marked  degree  in  those  States  where  alfalfa  is  the  dominant  hay 
crop  and  much  of  it  grown  by  irrigation.  The  price  is  decidedly 


YIELD  AND  PRICES  OF  HAY 


305 


highest  in  the  northeastern  States.  Hay  will  always  be  higher  here, 
as  it  is  a  bulky  crop,  and  freight  is  too  expensive  to  ship  a  great 
distance. 

The  price  is  also  high  in  the  South,  due  to  the  small  local  supply, 
and  a  large  proportion  of  the  hay  is  shipped  in. 

Hay  Report — Yield,  Quality  and  Price,  September  1,  1914 


Hay  (all  tame) 

State 

Yield  per  acre  — 
10-year  average 

Production  — 
5-year  average 

Price  Sept.  1  — 
5-year  average 

New  England: 
Maine  

Tons 

1.12 

Tons 
1  299  000 

Dottars 
14  02 

New  Hampshire  
Vermont  
Massachusetts  

1.11 
1.32 
1.23 

538,000 
1,310,000 

582  000 

15.76 
13.06 
2028 

Rhode  Island  

1.17 

67000 

2240 

Connecticut 

1  17 

441  000 

2052 

Middle  Atlantic: 
New  York 

1  22 

5  498  000 

1480 

New  Jersey                  .  . 

1  34 

472  000 

17  90 

Pennsylvania  

135 

3  840  000 

14  98 

South  Atlantic: 
Delaware  

1.37 

88000 

14  54 

Maryland  

1.30 

453000 

15  64 

Virginia  

1.22 

793000 

15  56 

West  Virginia  
North  Carolina  

1.30 
1.44 

770,000 
375  000 

15.20 
1590 

South  Carolina 

30 

219000 

17  46 

Georgia 

50 

293  000 

17  74 

Florida 

36 

52000 

16  82 

East  North  Central: 
Ohio. 

36 

3  838  000 

12  76 

Indiana  

28 

2  194  000 

12  44 

Illinois     

25 

3  168000 

12  76 

Michigan  
Wisconsin  
West  North  Central  : 
Minnesota  

.28 
.48 

.54 

3,004,000 
3,301,000 

2,265  000 

13.12 
12.84 

804 

Iowa 

41 

4  511  000 

9  32 

Missouri 

14 

3  115  000 

1060 

North  Dakota  
South  Dakota 

.27 
29 

403,000 
514000 

5.96 
664 

Nebraska              

.40 

1  591  000 

7  ge 

Kansas  .  .             

.30 

1  988  000 

8  56 

East  South  Central: 
Kentucky  

.25 

919  000 

14  26 

Tennessee  

.42 

1,117  000 

14  56 

Alabama  

.59 

268000 

13  66 

Mississippi 

1  57 

275  000 

11  58 

20 


306 


FORAGE  CROPS 


Hay  Report — Yield,  Quality  and  Price,  September  1,  1914  (Continued} 


Hay  (all  tame) 

State 

Yield  per  acre  — 
10-year  average 

Production  — 
5-year  average 

Price  Sept.  1— 
5-year  average 

West  South  Central: 
Louisiana 

Tons 

1  74 

Tons 
235000 

Dollars 

1206 

Texas                      

141 

444  000 

10.80 

Oklahoma        

1.18 

388,000 

7.96 

Arkansas     

1.40 

363,000 

11.30 

Mountain  : 
IVlontana 

1  80 

1  109  000 

980 

Wyoming 

2  18 

819  000 

9.16 

Colorado                   .  . 

229 

1,707  000 

9.58 

New  Mexico 

2.35 

387,000 

11.32 

Arizona   .        

3.27 

350,000 

10.78 

Utah  

2.89 

943,000 

8.30 

Nevada  

2.57 

587,000 

9.64 

Idaho 

294 

1,879  000 

7.66 

Pacific  : 
Washington 

2.27 

1,620  000 

11.90 

Oregon                       

2.11 

1,578,000 

9.46 

California  

1.77 

4,017,000 

10.74 

United  States 

1  40 

65  987  000 

12.04 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  the  meaning  of  forage  crops. 

2.  Name  the  principal  classes  of  forage  crops,  and  state  relative  impor- 

tance of  each. 

3.  What  is  included  under  the  heading  "  clover  "?    "  Other  tame  grasses"? 

4.  What  proportion  of  the  United  States  is  classed  as  improved  land? 

5.  How  much  in  cereals  and  cultivated  crops? 

6.  How  much  in  hay  and  pasture? 

7.  Is  the  unimproved  land  utilized? 

8.  Compare  different  regions  in  production  of  hay  and  forage. 

9.  Define  the  six  principal  forage  regions,  as  determined  by  the  dominant 

type  of  hay  plant. 

10.  Where  is  hay  production  increasing?    Why? 

11.  What  is  the  average  yield  of  hay? 

12.  Give  high  average  yields  for  States. 

13.  Where  are  prices  high?    State  reasons. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF   ECONOMIC   GRASSES   AND 

LEGUMES 

THE  term  "  grass "  in  common  usage  is  sometimes  applied  to 
all  plants  cut  for  hay,  including  the  clovers  and  alfalfa.  While  true 
grasses  do  include  cereals/ as  corn  and  wheat,  the  clovers  should  not 
be  considered  as  grasses.  There  are  other  grass-like  plants,  such  as 
the  sedges,  found  growing  in  wet  meadows,  and  often  cut  for  hay, 
that  are  not  true  grasses  from  the  botanist's  standpoint,  but  to  all 
practical  purposes  should  be  considered  with  grass. 

Number  of  Cultivated  Grasses. — There  are  in  the  world  some 
5000  species  of  grass,  and  in  the  United  States  about  1400  kinds. 
However,  out  of  this  vast  number  scarcely  50  have  come  into  culti- 
vation. Of  the  50  perhaps  not  more  than  20,  excluding  cereals  and 
millets,  are  cultivated  enough  so  that  seed  is  readily  obtainable  on 
the  market.  In  fact,  there  are  only  about  five  grasses  extensively 
cultivated,  namely,  timothy,  blue-grass,  rye-grass,  redtop,  and 
orchard-grass.  Of  secondary  importance  are  meadow  fescue,  tall 
oat-grass,  brome-grass,  Bermuda  grass,  and  Canada  blue-grass. 

All  of  the  secondary  grasses  are  important  in  certain  limited  areas 
or  for  special  purposes.  A  few  other  grasses  are  very  useful  for  cer- 
tain purposes,  but  the  above  ten  grasses  probably  represent  99  per 
cent  of  the  sowings. 

Some  Important  Requirements. — At  first  it  seems  remarkable 
that  a  bare  dozen  grasses  out  of  5000  have  attained  a  place  as  culti- 
vated grasses.  Few  grasses,  however,  fulfil  certain  essential  qualifi- 
cations, which  might  be  summarized  as  follows : 

1.  They  must  produce  seed  cheaply.  In  this  respect  most  of  the 
native  grasses  fail.  For  example,  the  great  prairie  region  of  the 
central  States  is  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  native  grasses. 
Most  of  these  grasses  make  excellent  pasture  and  hay,  and  several 
attempts  have  been  made  to  bring  some  of  them  into  cultivation. 

At  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  and  other  points,  during 
the  period  1898  to  1902,  more  than  200  of  these  grasses  were  tested 

307 


308  GRASSES  AND  LEGUMES 

in  small  plats.  Many  of  them  made  a  good  growth  and  yielded  hay 
equal  to  timothy,  but  they  all  failed  in  one  respect.  They  yielded 
little  or  no  seed  that  could  be  easily  and  cheaply  harvested. 

The  above  statement  explains  why  timothy  is  so  popular.  It  is 
no  better  in  quality  and  yield  than  many  other  grasses,  but  produces 
an  abundance  of  seed  at  a  low  cost. 

2.  Forage  grasses  should  be  palatable.     There  are  many  wild 
grasses  that  produce   seed   abundantly  but  are  considered  to   be 
"  weedy  "  grasses,  as  they  are  not  very  palatable ;  for  example,  the 
American  wild  rye  (Elymus  canadensis). 

3.  Grasses  must  be  productive.     After  elimination  of  those  wild 
grasses  that  do  not  meet  the  above  two  conditions  we  still  have  left  a 
considerable  number  of  grasses  that  produce   seed  well  and  are 
palatable  to  animals,  but  are  not  suited  to  cultivation  because  un- 
productive.    Sheep  fescue  and  related  species  are  good  examples. 

4.  Grasses  must  be  persistent.     There  are  several  good  grasses 
that  meet  the  above  three  conditions,  but  lack  endurance  under 
pasturage  or  constant  mowing.    The  large  "  blue  stems  "  and  "  blue 
joint "   grasses    of   the    prairies    serve    as    examples.      These    are 
dominant  grasses  on  virgin  prairie  in  the  Missouri  River  valley,  and 
very  valuable,  but  are  the  first  grasses  to  disappear  under  pasturage 
or  mowing  for  hay. 

A  Few  Exceptions. — We  have  a  few  cultivated  grasses  that  would 
hardly  conform  to  the  above  rules  yet  have  so  much  merit  that  they 
are  considered  valuable  grasses. 

Bermuda  grass  is  a  poor  seed  producer  and  is  often  propagated  by 
spreading  the  roots.  Yet  it  is  so  persistent  when  once  established 
that  only  a  small  amount  of  seed  is  needed.  Also  Bermuda  succeeds 
where  most  grasses  fail  (in  the  cotton  belt)  and  therefore  has  little 
competition. 

Kentucky  blue-grass  is  also  a  rather  shy  seed  producer,  and  does 
not  produce  a  large  crop  of  forage  as  compared  with  many  grasses. 
However,  it  is  so  persistent  when  once  established,  spreading  by 
underground  stems,  that  a  small  amount  of  seed  will  suffice.  From 
60  to  100  pounds  of  blue-grass  seed  are  required  to  sow  an  acre  with 
a  full  stand,  but  if  a  few  pounds  be  sown  with  other  grasses  it  will 
eventually  occupy  the  land.  Its  ability  to  withstand  hard  pasturing 


GRASS  ROOTS  309 


year  after  year  without  deteriorating,  but  often  improving,  over- 
comes its  rather  low  yield. 

Origin  of  Forage  Grasses. — Out  of  the  1400  native  grasses  in 
America  only  one  has  found  a  place  in  culture.  This  is  the  slender 
wheat  grass  (Agropyron  tenerum)  of  the  western  plains.  It  is 
adapted  to  a  large  area  and  does  well  under  irrigation. 

All  the  rest  of  our  cultivated  grasses  have  an  Old  World  origin, 
mostly  from  Europe.  These  grasses  are  found  as  wild  grasses  in 
their  native,  country,  but  some  have  practically  run  wild  over  the 
United  States  since  their  introduction,  as  blue-grass  and  redtop. 

The  Improvement  of  Grasses. — Little  has  been  done  in  de- 
veloping varieties  of  forage  grasses,  most  of  the  cultivated  forms 
being  identical  with  the  wild  forms.  With  wheats  we  probably  have 
1000  varieties,  and  500  varieties  of  corn,  but  only  one  variety  of 
timothy  or  of  blue-grass.  Work  is  now  being  carried  on  at  several 
places  in  developing  varieties  of  grass,  and  it  is  likely  that  in  time  we 
shall  have  commercial  varieties  of  timothy  and  other  grasses,  with 
special  adaptation  to  different  soils  and  climates  or  suited  to  special 
uses,  as  pasture  or  hay  forms. 

CHARACTERISTICS    OF    GRASSES      . 

The  botanists  often  group  wild  grasses  according  to  adaptation,  as 
sand  binders,  marsh  grasses,  bunch  grasses,  etc. 

Cultivated  grasses  are  sometimes  grouped  as  lawn  grasses,  pas- 
ture grasses,  hay  grasses,  etc.  To  fully  understand  the  uses  of 
grasses  a  little  study  of  grass  characters  is  essential. 

Grass  Roots. — Grasses  have  fibrous  roots  in  contrast  with  the 
legumes  that  have  tap  roots.  Grasses,  on  the  whole,  are  considered 
rather  shallow-rooted  plants.  Where  sods  have  been  examined,  from 
80  to  90  per  <cent  of  the  roots  are  usually  found  in  the  upper  six 
inches.  A  few  roots  usually  penetrate  to  a  depth  of  three  to  four 
feet.  Smooth  brome-grass  (Bromus  inermis)  is  one  of  the  most 
heavily  rooted  of  grasses,  and  usually  has  a  fairly  long  root  system 
to  a  depth  of  five  to  six  feet  in  the  prairie  soils. 

The  age  of  sod  apparently  affects  the  distribution  of  roots,  as 
they  appear  to  gradually  become  shallower  as  the  sod  gets  old  and 
compact.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  well-known  weedy  quack  grass. 


310 


GRASSES  AND  LEGUMES 


Quack  (or  witch)  grass  has  a  heavy,  stoloniferous  root  system,  dis- 
tributed through  four  to  six  inches  of  surface  soil  in  cultivated 
fields  or  when  first  taking  possession  of  the  soil.  As  the  sod  becomes 
old  and  tough  the  root  stocks  become  shallower,  and  in  an  old  sod 
are  mostly  in  the  upper  two  inches. 

It  is  said  that  one  reason  why  old  meadows  respond  so  quickly 
to  fertilizers  is  due  to  the  rather  shallow  roots.     Old  pastures  and 


FIG.  124. — Orchard-grass  representing  a  typical  bunch  grass. 

meadows  also  are  seriously  affected  by  drought,  probably  for  the 
same  reason. 

Bunch  and  Sod  Grasses. — Certain  of  the  cultivated  grasses, 
when  sown  thinly,  form  compact,  isolated  bunches  which  spread 
very  slowly.  Orchard-grass  and  sheep  fescue  are  excellent  ex- 
amples (Fig.  124).  Other  grasses,  as  blue-grass  and  brome-grass, 
spread  rapidly  and  form  tough,  compact  sods.  The  principal  differ- 


ADAPTATION  OF  THE  TYPES  311 

ence  between  these  two  classes  lies  in  the  way  the  new  branches  or 
stems  develop. 

In  bunch  grasses  the  new  tillers,  which  usually  arise  at  a  node  at 
or  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  grow  up  inside  the  leaf  sheath,  as  in 
orchard-grass  or  tall  oat-grass. 

In  so  d  grasses  the  tip  of  the  new  branch  pushes  directly  through 
the  base  of  the  leaf  sheath  and  spreads  a  greater  or  less  distance 
before  ascending.  There  are  several  forms  of  this  spreading. 

1.  Base  of  stems  prostrate,  when  the  new  branch  extends  hori- 
zontally for  an  inch  or  two  and  then  bends  upward,  as  in  timothy. 
In  some  cases  new  roots  may  develop  at  the  joints  from  the  prostrate 
portion  of  the  stem. 

2.  Stolons  are  branches  much  further  modified,  which  extend 
wholly  along  the  surface  of  the  ground.     These  may  produce  new 
roots  at  any  of  the  nodes,  and  also  erect  ascending  stems.     Buffalo 
grass  is  an  excellent  example.     Bermuda  grass  sometimes  produces 
stolons  when  the  ground  is  hard,  or  rhizomes  when  the  ground  is  soft. 

3.  Rhizomes  or  root  stocks  are  stems  produced  underground. 
They  differ  from  the  stolons  above  ground  in  the  absence  of  leaves, 
but  are  similar  in  producing  roots  and  ascending  stems  at  the  nodes. 
Blue-grass  and  brome-grass  are  good  examples. 

Adaptation  of  the  Types. — While  bunch  grasses  may  make 
good  hay  grasses,  they  are  not  well  adapted  to  pasture  or  lawn  pur- 
poses. The  land  is  badly  tramped  in  wet  weather.  As  plants  die 
from  various  causes  or  are  tramped  out  the  land  is  not  quickly  oc- 
cupied by  the  spreading  of  adjacent  plants,  but  weeds  are  permitted 
to  come  in. 

When  bunch  grasses  are  sown  in  pasture,  they  should  be  mixed 
with  sod  grasses  to  occupy  the  vacant  spaces. 

While  some  sod  grasses  grow  tall  enough  for  hay,  as  brome-grass, 
not  all  do,  but  usually  make  good  pasture  or  lawn  grasses. 

Certain  grasses,  however,  which  normally  form  bunches  when 
permitted  to  grow  tall,  form  very  compact,  close  turf  when  kept 
close  cut,  as  in  a  lawn  or  pasture.  Sheep  fescue  and  red  fescue  are 
good  examples. 

Timothy  can  not  be  strictly  classed  with  either  type.  The  stems 
are  prostrate  for  a  short  distance  at  the  base,  forming  a  slow  spread- 


312  GRASSES  AND  LEGUMES 

ing  bunch  grass.  Sown  at  ordinary  rate  of  seeding  timothy  forms  a 
fair  sod.  Redtop  varies  a  great  deal,  with  a  tendency  to  form  stolons, 
and  always  forms  a  good  sod. 

For  convenient  reference  the  common  grasses  may  be  grouped  as 
follows,  though  the  line  of  demarcation  is  not  sharp : 

Bunch  grasses :  Orchard-grass,  tall  oat-grass,  sheep  fescue,  red 
fescue,  annual  rye-grass,  meadow  fescue. 

Semi-bunch  grasses :  Timothy,  perennial  rye-grass,  wheat-grass. 

Sod  grasses:  Eedtop,  brome-grass,  Bermuda  grass,  Kentucky 
blue-grass,  Canada  blue-grass,  bent  grass. 

Palatability  of  Grasses. — We  say  a  grass  is  palatable  when 
cattle  eat  it  readily  and  appear  to  thrive.  Much  chemical  study  has 
been  made  of  grasses,  but  no  relation  has  been  found  between  chem- 
ical analysis  and  palatability.  In  fact,  both  the  palatable  and  un- 
palatable grasses  have  very  much  the  same  chemical  analysis. 

Generally  the  better  grasses  have  softer  and  more  pliable  leaves 
and  stems,  which  is  about  as  near  a  distinction  as  can  be  made. 

Change  in  Palatability. — All  young  grass  is  palatable  and  ap- 
pears to  be  readily  eaten  by  stock.  However,  even  among  young 
grasses  some  distinction  is  noted  where  the  pasture  is  of  mixed 
grasses.  For  example,  in  mixed  blue-grass  and  redtop  pasture,  cattle 
usually  choose  the  young  blue-grass.  If  the  pasture  is  all  of  redtop, 
however,  cattle  eat  it  and  thrive. 

While  all  young  grass  appears  to  be  good,  a  change  is  noted  as 
grasses  mature.  Some  grasses  retain  palatability  until  well  grown, 
and  these  usually  make  good  hay,  while  others  rapidly  deteriorate  in 
quality  after  the  blossoming  period. 

For  convenience  we  may  roughly  group  the  grasses  into  two 
classes,  as  follows: 

1.  Grasses  that  retain  quality  well  after  blossoming  period: 
Timothy,  brome-grass,  wheat-grass,  meadow  fescue,  rye-grasses. 

.2.  Grasses  that  rapidly. lose  quality  after  blossoming  period: 
Orchard-grass,  redtop,  meadow  oat-grass,  Kentucky  blue-grass, 
eheep  fescue. 

However,  climate  and  soil  conditions  have  something  to  do  with 
retaining  quality.  In  general,  grasses  retain  quality  longer  on  moist 
soils  or  in  a  humid  climate  than  on  dry  soil  or  in  a  dry  climate. 


ADAPTATION  TO  ACID  OR  TO  LIMESTONE  SOILS        313 

The  great  popularity  of  timothy  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  hay 
of  good  quality  can  be  made  for  a  period  of  two  to  three  weeks. 
Some  grasses,  as  orchard-grass,  lose  quality  so  quickly  after  blossom- 
ing that  the  hay  must  be  made  in  a  very  short  time.  As  farming 
operations  can  not  always  be  adjusted  to  take  care  of  hay  at  just  the 
right  time,  such  grasses  are  usually  unpopular. 

Adaptation  to  Wet  or  Dry  Land. — All  the  cultivated  grasses 
will  succeed  on  well-drained,  fertile  land  and  a  moderate  supply  of 
moisture.  However,  such  land  is  also  well  adapted  to  growing 
grain  and  cultivated  crops.  The  wet  lands  are  usually  given  over 
to  meadow  or  pasture,  while  the  dry  lands  are  almost  wholly  given  to 
pasture  purposes. 

It  can  not  be  said  that  any  cultivated  grasses  or  legumes  prefer 
very  wet  or  dry  soils,  but  some  are  much  more  tolerant  to  the 
extreme  cpnditions  than  others. 

In  the  following  grouping  the  common  legumes  have  also  been 
included  for  convenience : 

Plants  tolerant  of  very  wet  soils :  Eedtop,  alsike  clover,  orchard- 
grass,  annual  rye-grass,  perennial  rye-grass,  Canada  blue-grass. 

Not  very  tolerant  of  wet  or  dry  soils :  Timothy,  meadow  fescue, 
red  clover,  Kentucky  blue-grass. 

Tolerant  of  dry  soils:  Orchard-grass,  smooth  brome-grass, 
alfalfa,  sheep  fescue,  Canada  blue-grass. 

All  the  forage  plants  may  be  grown  in  some  degree  on  almost  all 
soils,  but  some  plants  have  a  much  greater  range  than  others.  For 
example,  orchard- grass,  while  capable  of  withstanding  wet  soil,  and 
even  flooding  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  is  yet  capable  of  growing  on 
dry  soils,  and  is  commonly,  recommended  for  the  dry  hills  in  the 
Ozark  Mountain  region  and  eastward.  Eedtop,  Canada  blue-grass, 
and  white  clover  also  have  a  great  range,  and  might  be  considered  as 
plants  adapted  to  all  conditions. 

Other  grasses  have  a  much  narrower  range ;  for  example,  the  rye- 
grasses,  which  always  require  a  rather  high  degree  of  moisture,  and 
timothy,  which  will  not  do  well  at  either  extreme. 

Adaptation  to  Acid  or  to  Limestone  Soils. — All  the  common 
forage  crops  will  do  better  on  limestone  soils,  but  here  again  there 
is  a  great  range  in  adaptation.  Certain  plants,  as  red  clover  or 


314  GRASSES  AND  LEGUMES 

alfalfa,  will  grow  only  on  soils  well  supplied  with  lime,  at  least  suf- 
ficient lime  so  they  could  not  be  classed  as  acid  soils  in  any  degree. 
Other  plants,  as  alsike  clover  and  redtop,  while  favored  by  at  least 
sufficient  lime  to  give  a  neutral  soil,,  are  yet  so  tolerant  of  acid  soils 
that  they  will  grow  fairly  well  under  such  conditions. 

The  problem  has  not  been  thoroughly  worked  out,  but  the  plants 
may  be  roughly  classed  as  follows : 

Tolerant  to  acid  soils:  Kedtop,  alsike  clover,  orchard-grass, 
Canada  blue-grass,  rye-grass. 

Moderate  lime  requirement:  Timothy,  white  clover,  meadow 
fescue,  smooth  brome-grass,  sheep  fescue,  Kentucky  blue-grass. 

High  lime  requirement :  Red  clover,  sweet  clover,  alfalfa. 

Life  Period  of  Forage  Plants. — There  is  no  exact  way  of  stat- 
ing the  approximate  length  of  life  of  a  grass.  Most  of  the  common 
grasses  under  very  favorable  conditions  are  long  lived,  but  life  is 
correspondingly  decreased  as  environment  is  less  favorable.  For 
example,  some  farmers  expect  a  timothy  meadow  to  last  only  five  or 
six  years,  yet  manuring  will  double  the  period  of  life.  In  other 
regions  timothy  is  expected  to  live  ten  to  twenty  years,  and  there  are 
good  timothy  meadows  on  rich,  well-watered  soils  that  are  known  to 
be*  fifty  years  old,  and  still  producing  good  hay  crops. 

Length  of  time  for  reaching  full  development  or  maximum  yield 
will  vary,  but  assuming  average  conditions  we  may  give  the  follow- 
ing approximate  data : 

Average  Time  Required  for  Development  of  Grasses  and  Legumes 

Full  development,          Approximate  life 

Name  years  of  good  sod 

Hed  clover   1  Bi-annual 

Sweet  clover   1  Bi-annual 

Alsike  clover 1  2-5  years 

Rye-grass 1  2  years 

Timothy    1-2  5-10  years 

Meadow  fescue   1-2  3-5  years 

Orchard-grass 2  5-10  years 

Redtop    2  Fairly  permanent 

Brome-grass     2  Permanent 

Sheep  fescue    2  3-5  years 

White  clover   2-5          .  Fairly  permanent 

Alfalfa    3-4  10-20  years 

Kentucky  blue-grass    .  3-4  Permanent 

Canada  blue-grass 3-4  Permanent 


QUESTIONS  315 

Permanent  Grasses.  —  By  permanent  is  meant  that  under  fair 
environment  will  continue  without  deterioration  or  giving  away  to 
weeds.  Blue-grass  is  perhaps  the  best  example.  A  good  blue-grass 
sod  will  withstand  heavy  pasturage  for  a  long  period  and  on  good 
soils  will  appear  even  to  grow  better.  This  is  probably  due  to  the 
strong  underground  rhizomes,  which  constantly  produce  a  new  crop 
of  young  plants.  This  is  characteristic  of  brome-grass,  redtop,  and 
Canada  blue-grass,  and  apparently  of  all  fairly  permanent  grasses. 

White  clover  propagates  in  the  same  way,  but  appears  to  be  very 
sensitive  to  heat  and  drought.  While  it  seldom  entirely  disappears 
when  once  established,  the  white  clover  will  often  largely  disappear 
during  a  period  of  dry  years,  to  return  when  rain  is  abundant. 

EXERCISES 

Outline  for  Describing  Grasses  and  Millets.1  —  This  outline  calls  at- 
tention to  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  each  grass. 

The  stem  and  leaves: 

Height    .......  .  ................................................ 

Color  of  stem  ................................................. 

Color  of  leaves  ..............................  .................. 

Number  of  leaves    .......................  ;  ..................... 

Head  : 

Awned  or  awnless  ............................................. 

Panicled,  compact,  or  spiked  .................................... 

Size  (give  length  and  diameter)    ................................ 

Color  of  awns  ................................................. 

Color  of  chaff  ................................................. 

Root: 

Does  it  spread  from  rootstocks  ?  .............  .  .....  ............. 

Is  it  a  sod-forming  or  bunch  grass  ?   .  .  '.  .......................... 

Seeds  : 

Size  (give  average  length  in  inches)    ............................. 

Color   (  general  color  )    .......................................... 

General  Notes: 

Is  seed  free  or  inclosed  in  scales  ?  .............  .  ................ 

Weight  per  bushel   ........................................... 

Amount  sown  per  acre  .........  ;  ......................... 

Vitality    .................................................... 

Drawings  of  Seeds.  —  Make  drawing  from  convex  side.  Make  drawing 
of  cross  section. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  grasses. 

2.  How  many  grasses  are  there  in  the  world?     In  the  United  States?    In 

cultivation  ? 

3.  State  clearly  the  essential  qualifications  of  a  cultivated  grass. 


the  author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by 
Ginn  &  Co. 


316  GRASSES  AND  LEGUMES 

4.  Why  is  seed  production  so  important? 

5.  If  a  grass  is  a  shy  seed  producer,  what  compensating  qualities  must  it 

have? 

6.  Give  the  origin  of  cultivated  grasses. 

7.  Compare  the  improvement  of  grasses  and  cereals. 

8.  Name  some  natural  groups  of  grasses. 

9.  Give  the  character  and  distribution  of  grass  roots.     Roots  in  old  sod. 

10.  Clearly  define  difference  between  bunch  and  sod  grasses. 

11.  Define  stolons.    Rhizomes. 

12.  To  what  uses  are  the  types  qualified? 

13.  Does  close  mowing  ever  change  character  of  growth? 

14.  How  is  timothy  classed? 

15.  Name  the  principal  bunch  grasses.     Sod  grasses. 

16.  What  is  palatability  ?     How  is  it  determined? 

17.  Distinguish  between  the  quality  of  young  grass  and  full-grown  grass. 

18.  Name  some  grasses  that  retain  quality  when  well  grown. 

19.  Is  this  important  in  a  hay  grass?     In  a  pasture  grass? 

20.  Name  some  grasses  that  decrease  in  quality. 

21.  Why  is  timothy  so  popular  as  a  hay  grass? 

22.  Why  are  grasses  often  grown  on  rather  extreme  types  of  soil,  as  very 

wet  or  very  dry? 

23.  Why  do  we  say  that  certain  grasses  are  "  tolerant"  of  wet  or  dry  soil? 

24.  Name  some  grasses  tolerant  to  wet  soil.     To  dry  soil. 

25.  What  is  meant  by  a  wide  or  narrow  range  of  adaptation  ? 

26.  Name  plants  tolerant  to  acid  soil. 

27.  Name  those  requiring  soils  high  in  lime. 

28.  How  long  may  we  expect  timothy  to  live  ? 

29.  What  factors  affect  length  of  life  in  grasses? 

30.  Name  some  forage  plants  that  come  to  full  growtli  quickly. 

31.  Some  that  develop  slowly. 

32.  Name  some  bi-annual  plants. 

33.  Name  some  long-lived  plants. 

34.  Name  some  permanent  plants. 

35.  What  is  meant  by  permanent? 

36.  Give  the  general  character  of  permanent  grasses. 

37.  Is  white  clover  long-lived? 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
GRASS  MIXTURES— SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 

FOR  hay  meadows  it  is  not  the  practice  to  sow  grass  mixtures 
in  America,  though  in  Europe  it  is  the  common  custom  to  sow 
complicated  mixtures.  In  Europe  we  hear  much  about  top  and 
bottom  grasses,  meaning  tall  grasses,  that  often  do  not  form  a  close 
sod,  mixed  with  shorter,  sod-forming  grasses  that  furnish  a  heavy 
basal  growth  of  herbage.  The  bottom  grasses  are  thought  not  only 
to  increase  the  yield  of  forage,  but  also  to  provide  better  pasture  and 
a  long-lived  meadow. 

In  the  United  States  out  of  about  45,000,000  acres  of  tame  grass 
meadows,  about  37,000,000  acres  are  timothy  and  clover,  about  half 
sown  together  and  half  separately.  About  4,000,000  are  alfalfa,  and 
about  the  same  acreage  of  "  other  tame  grasses,"  but  how  much  of 
the  latter  are  mixtures  is  not  stated. 

For  pastures  and  lawns,  however,  it  is  more  common  to  sow 
mixtures,  though  there  are  no  statistical  data  on  this.  *; 

Meadow  Mixtures. — The  principal '  reasons  for  mixing  red 
clover  and  timothy  may  be  briefly  enumerated : 

1.  Greater  yield  of  forage.     Timothy  usually  does  not  come  to 
full  yield  the  first  year,  while  the  clover  does,  resulting  in  a  larger 
total  crop.     The  clover  mostly  dies  at  end  of  first  year,  but  is  bene- 
ficial to  the  soil  and  gives  a  better  second  crop  of  timothy. 

2.  The  roots  of  red  clover  penetrate  deeper  than  timothy  roots, 
so  the  two  plants  can  grow  together  without  directly  competing. 

3.  The  feeding  value  of  the  hay  is  greater,  as  clover  is  much  the 
richer  in  protein.     In  the  city  markets,  however,  straight  timothy 
brings  a  higher  price,  as  it  usually  has  a  better  appearance,  is  less 
dusty  and  is  preferred  by  liverymen. 

One  disadvantage  in  red  clover  is  in  ripening  about  ten  days 
ahead  of  the  timothy.  For  this  reason  some  prefer  the  mammoth 
clover,  which  ripens  approximately  with  timothy. 

Neither  orchard-grass  nor  redtop  mixes  well  with  timothy,  as 
they  both  ripen  too  soon. 

Alfalfa  is  also  impractical  for  the  mixture,  as  it  is  usually  cut  at 
least  three  times  and  timothy  only  once. 

317 


318  GRASS  MIXTURES— SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 

Soil  Not  Uniform. — One  of  the  principal  reasons  for  mixtures  is 
in  cases  where  the  soil  in  a  field  is  not  uniform.  In  the  eastern 
States  the  natural  supply  of  lime  in  the  soil  is  getting  so  low  that 
certain  areas  in  many  fields  will  not  grow  red  clover,  and  if  there  are 
really  acid  spots  the  timothy  may  fail.  As  both  alsike  clover  and  red- 
top  will  grow  on  more  acid  soil  than  red  clover  and  timothy,  espe- 
cially if  the  land  is  poorly  drained  and  wet,  it  is  quite  common  to 
mix  in  both  of  these.  Four  common  mixtures  are  the  following: 

On  good  timothy  and  red  clover  soil:  Timothy,  15  pounds;  red 
clover,  10  pounds. 

Where  red  clover  fails  in  spots :  Timothy,  15  pounds;  red  clover, 
5  pounds ;  alsike  clover,  3  pounds. 

Where  both  timothy  and  red  clover  fail  in  spots:  Timothy,  10 
pounds;  redtop,  5  pounds;  red  clover,  5  pounds;  alsike  clover,  3 
pounds. 

Where  both  timothy  and  red  clover  fail:  Eedtop,  10  pounds; 
alsike  clover,  5  pounds. 

Pasture  Mixtures. — The  reasons  s§t  forth  for  using  mixtures  in 
sowing  pastures  are: 

1.  Some  grasses  are  slow  in  establishing  a  sod.     This  is  especially 
true  of  Kentucky  blue-grass,  the  best  of  all  pasture  grasses  where  it 
grows  well.     Three  to  four  years  are  required  for  blue-grass  to  form 
a  good  sod,  so  it  is  customary  to  sow  some  quick-growing  grasses  with 
it  to  furnish  pasture  while  the  blue-grass  is  establishing.     It  takes 
from  60  to  100  pounds  of  blue-grass  seed  per  acre  for  a  full  stand, 
but  this  is  too  expensive  and  it  is  the  general  custom  to  sow  only 
five  to  ten  pounds,  and  give  it  more  time  to  spread. 

2.  Some  grasses  do  not  form  a  good  sod  and  need  fillers.     This 
is  especially  true  of  orchard-grass  or  rye-grass,  and  all  bunch  grasses. 
They  need  some  sod-forming  grass  with  them  to  form  a  good  turf. 

3.  Succession  of  plants  is  important.     For  example,  orchard- 
grass  makes  a  good  growth  in  early  spring  and  late  fall,  but  poor 
pasture  in  midsummer.     Blue-grass  is  at  its  prime  in  June,  while 
timothy  furnishes  good  pasturage  through  July.     A  mixture  will 
furnish  more  continuous  pasture  through  a  longer  season. 

4.  Soil  not  uniform.     The  roughest,  most  uneven  land  is  usually 
given  over  to  permanent  pasture.     In  a  single  pasture,  land  may 


TEMPORARY  PASTURES  319 

vary  from  a  wet,  springy  bog  to  dry,  gravelly  hill  land.  Part  may 
be  well  supplied  with  lime  and  part  acid.  Another  part  may  be 
under  woods  and  some  in  the  open.  No  one  grass  can  be  expected  to 
succeed  in  all  conditions,  while  a  well-chosen  mixture  may  furnish 
some  good  plant  for  all  parts. 

Temporary  and  Permanent  Pastures. — A  sharp  distinction 
must  be  made  between  temporary  pastures  of  one  to  three  years, 
and  permanent  pastures.  Almost  any  quick-growing,  vigorous 
grass  may  produce  good  temporary  pasture.  Timothy  meadows  are 
sometimes  cut  for  a  year  or  two  and  then  turned  into  pasture  for  a 
year  or  two.  It  is  not  very  common  practice  to  sow  temporary 
pastures.  Permanent  pastures  are  most  commonly  on  land  not  well 
suited  to  growing  cultivated  crops.  The  land  is  often  uneven  in 
quality,  and  judgment  is  needed  to  secure  a  good  covering  of  pasture 
plants. 

Supplementary  Pastures. — Where  a  supplementary  pasture  is 
needed  for  only  one  summer  or  perhaps  two  or  three  months, 
usually  one  of  the  cereals,  millets  or  sorghums  is  used.  Winter  rye 
sown  early  in  August  will  make  a  late  fall  and  early  spring  pasture. 
Winter  rye  sown  in  the  spring  makes  a  good  midsummer  and  fall 
pasture.  Millets  and  sorghum  may  be  sown  from  early  spring  to 
midsummer  for  supplementary  pasture.  Grasses  or  clovers  are 
seldom  sown  for  so  short  a  period: 

Temporary  Pastures. — Frequently  a  quick  pasture  is  needed 
for  only  two  or  three  years.  Quick-growing  grasses  and  clovers  are 
used.  Rye-grass,  timothy,  redtop,  red  clover,  and  alsike  clover  are 
best.  These  plants,  sown  early  in  August,  will  furnish  a  good 
pasturage  the  following  season,  and  for  a  period  of  two  or  three 
years.  Sown  in  spring  with  a  nurse  crop  they  will  furnish  fall 
pasture  the  same  season. 

The  following  mixture  is  suggested  for  temporary  pasture. 
(Seed  for  one  acre.) 

English  rye-grass   20  pounds 

Timothy 5  pounds 

Redtop 3  pounds 

Red  clover 5  pounds ' 

Alsike  clover 3  pounds 

36  pounds 


320  GRASS  MIXTURES— SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 

This  is  a  heavy  seeding,  but  is  desirable  where  cattle  are  turned 
in  before  time  to  form  a  good  sod.  The  amount  could  be  reduced  if 
more  time  were  allowed,  or  if  the  soil  was  favorable  for  quick  growth. 

The  rye-grass  is  quick  growing  but  short  lived,  and  will  furnish 
most  of  the  grass  the  first  year,  but  will  be  largely  replaced  with  the 
timothy  and  redtop  the  second  year.  Red  clover  and  alsike  are 
both  considered  as  biennial,  and  if  the  pasture  is  to  last  more  than 
two  years  additional  seed  of  these  clovers  should  be  scattered  on 
during  the  spring  of  the  second  year. 

Permanent  Pastures. — There  are  only  five  permanent  grasses 
sown  extensively  in  the  United  States. 

Kentucky  Hue-grass  is  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable.  It  is 
adapted  climatically  to  all  the  north  half  of  this  country  and 
Canada,  except  acid  soils  and  dry,  stony  hill  lands  low  in  fertility. 

Canada  blue-grass,  while  less  productive,  is  excellent  in  quality, 
and  fortunately  will  grow  on  acid  soils  and  on  poor,  dry  soils  where 
Kentucky  blue-grass  fails.  It  should  be  sown  where  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  fails. 

Redtop,  while  as  productive  as  Kentucky  blue-grass,  is  less  pala- 
table. It  grows,  however,  on  acid  or  poor  soils,  where  blue-grass  fails, 
and  is  probably  the  most  important  pasture  plant  in  the  hill  lands  of 
New  York  and  New  England. 

Brome-grass  is  capable  of  enduring  dry  weather  and  summer  heat, 
but  requires  a  rather  northern  climate.  In  the  Dakotas  and  west- 
ward, brome-grass  is  valuable  sown  alone  and  also  with  blue-grass, 
as  it  continues  to  grow  during  the  midsummer  season  when  blue- 
grass  is  dormant. 

Bermuda  grass  is  the  most  valuable  permanent  pasture  grass  for 
the  South,  below  the  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  timothy  region. 

White  clover  on  good  soil  is  regarded  as  permanent,  owing  to  its 
ability  to  produce  seed  under  pasturage,  thus  constantly  reseeding 
(see  Chapter  XLII). 

Mixtures. — Both  of  the  blue-grasses,  white  clover,  and  Bermuda 
grass  are  slow  in  establishing,  requiring  three  to  four  years.  Seed  is 
also  expensive  and  it  is  the  custom  to  sow  thin,  depending  on  their 
natural  ability  to  spread  for  a  permanent  stand.  Therefore  in  sow- 


OTHER  GRASSES 


321 


ing  permanent  •  pasture  quick-growing  grasses  are  mixed  with  the 
slow-growing  (Fig.  125). 

The  mixtures  here  suggested  are  principally  for  the  blue-grass 
and  timothy  region : 


1.  For  soils  that  will  grow 
blue-grass   and   timothy: 
Pounds 

Timothy  10 

Red  clover 5 

Redtop     5 

Orchard-grass     5 

Kentucky   blue-grass     ...    10 
White  clover 3 

38 


2.  On     poorer     soils,     too     wet 
or  dry  hills  low  in  lime: 

Pounds 

Alsike  clover 5 

Redtop 5 

Orchard-grass     5 

Canada  blue-grass  ....  10-20 
White  clover    .  3 


28 


1.  In  the  first  mixture  timothy  and  red  clover  will  furnish 
pasture  the  first  two  years,  but  will  give  way  eventually  to  the  other 


FIG.   125. — Plants  used  in  mixture  for  pasture  on  poor  land. 

grasses.  The  redtop  and  orchard-grass  will  probably  persist  in  the 
wetter  spots  and  on  areas  too  low  in  lime  for  blue-grass.  Eventu- 
ally the  blue-grass  should  dominate,  with  more  or  less  white  clover 
persistent,  depending  on  the  weather. 

2.  In  the  second  mixture  the  timothy  is  left  out.  Red  clover 
is  replaced  with  alsike,  and  Kentucky  blue-grass  with  Canadian 
blue-grass.  All  these  plants,  with  the  exception  of  alsike,  are  likely 
to  persist,  though  the  Canada  blue-grass  and  redtop  are  apt  to  be 
dominant  in  time. 

Other  Grasses. — -Rye-grasses,  meadow  fescue,  meadow  fox-tail, 
21 


322  GRASS  MIXTURES— SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 

and  sheep  fescue  are  all  sometimes  recommended,  but  little  used  in 
the  United  States.  The  rye-grasses  are  extensively  used  in  Europe, 
but  it  is  doubtful  if  they  have  a  place  in  permanent  pasture  mixtures 
in  America. 

Natural  Pastures. —  While  there  are  no  available  data  on  the 
subject,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  most  of  the  blue-grass  pasture  has  never 
been  sown  as  such.  The  wild  blue-grass  has  simply  spread  by 
natural  means,  and  taken  possession  of  the  land.  The  same  is  true 
of  Canadian  blue-grass,  redtop,  and  white  clover,  in  regions  where 
these  plants  are  indigenous. 

In  fact,  one  test  of  the  permanent  pasture  value  of  a  grass  is  to 
note  whether  the  grass  runs  wild  and  if  it  is  persistent  enough  to 
run  out  other  vegetation.  If  it  is  not  capable  of  this  in  the  region, 
the  plant  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  suited  to  the  hard  usage  of 
permanent  pasture. 

Grass  Seeds. — There  is  very  little  difficulty  experienced  in  secur- 
ing reasonably  good  seed  of  most  standard  forage  crops.  In  fact,  one 
of  the  reasons  they  are  standard  crops  is  because  these  crops  produce 
good  seed  cheaply.  The  most  notable  exception  is  blue-grass,  which 
is  often  not  only  low  in  vitality  but  often  high  in  inert  matter,  mostly 
chaff,  which  is  difficult  to  separate  out.  Orchard-grass  is  also  often 
high  in  inert  matter/  The  points  to  be  observed  in  judging  the 
quality  of  seeds  may  be  classed  as  inert  matter,  dead  seeds,  and 
weed  seeds. 

Inert  Matter. — Grass  seeds  are  usually  more  or  less  firmly 
enclosed  in  the  glumes,  and  in  threshing  may  be  only  partly  or  not  at 
all  freed  from  glumes.  This  makes  the  seeds  very  light  in  weight, 
so  that  small  pieces  of  stem  or  leaves  of  about  the  same  size  can  not 
be  readily  separated  in  the  cleaning  machinery. 

This 'is  illustrated  well  by  redtop,  which  is  often  sold  "in  the 
chaff  "  or  may  be  recleaned  practically  free  from  the  chaff.  In  the 
chaff  a  stroked  bushel  will  weigh  about  fourteen  pounds,  but  re- 
cleaned  seed  will  weigh  from  thirty  to  forty  pounds.  A  bushel  of 
redtop  seed  may  weigh  anywhere  from  fourteen  to  forty  pounds, 
depending  on  the  per  cent  of  chaff  present,  or  seeds  that  have  been 
freed  from  chaff.  The  legal  weight  and  average  variation  in  weight 
are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


HARD  SEEDS  323 

Weights  of  Seeds  of  Forage  Crops 

Variation  in  weight  of  one 
Name  of  seed  Legal  weight  bushel, — pounds 

Redtop   14  14-40 

Orchard-grass     14  12-22 

Kentucky  blue-grass 14  6-30 

Timothy 45  45-50 

Italian  rye-grass   20  12-24 

Meadow  fescue   . .  20-30 

Smooth    brome-grass     . .  12-20 

Bermuda  grass . .  35 

Millet   48-50  40-55 

Sheep  fescue    10-30 

Peas,  beans,  alfalfa,  clovers  and 

vetches   60  55-65 

Seeds  Sold  by  Weight. — Most  farm  products  are  sold  by  the 
bushel,  as  grain,  potatoes,  or  apples.  Clover,  alfalfa,  peas,  and 
vetch  are  also  generally  sold  by  the  bushel.  Timothy  is  also  sold  by 
the  bushel,  but  other  grass  seeds,  owing  to  the  variable  weights,  are 
more  often  sold  by  the  100  pounds.  In  fact,  it  is  becoming  more 
common  to  sell  clovers,  timothy,  and  all  small  forage  seeds  by  the 
hundredweight,  as  it  is  really  a  fairer  and  more  logical  way. 

Dead  Seeds. — The  vitality  of  new  seed  properly  cared  for  is 
usually  high.  Low  vitality  is  usually  due  either  to  poor  manage- 
ment in  curing  or  to  old  seed.  Blue-grass  offers  a  good  example  of 
seed  injured  in  curing.  The  seed  heads  are  usually  stripped  with  a 
machine  and  piled  up  to  dry.  The  drying  is  slow  and  often  some 
heat  develops.  It  has  been  proved  that  blue-grass  properly  cured 
has  a  high  vitality. 

How  long  seeds  will  retain  vitality  depends  largely  on  storage. 
In  good  dry  storage  most  seeds  remain  vital  for  two  to  three  years. 
However,  seeds  in  damp  storage  or  in  a  warm,  humid  climate  may 
be  worthless  after  one  year. 

Immature  seeds  are  sometimes  present,  especially  in  the  clovers. 
In  clover  and  alfalfa  they  usually  have  a  dark  brown  or  shrivelled 
appearance,  and  have  little  or  no  value. 

Hard  seeds  are  common  in  all  the  clovers  and  vetches,  but  prob- 
ably do  not  often  occur  in  grasses.  Hard  seeds  are  due  to  the  seed- 
coat  being  impervious  to  water.  The  seeds  will  remain  in  the 
ground  until  the  seed-coat  decays  sufficiently  so  water  can  enter, 
which  may  take  one  or  two  years.  If  the  seed-coats  are  scratched  by 


324  GRASS  MIXTURES— SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 

rubbing  over  sand  paper  they  will  germinate  easily.  Soaking  in 
commercial  sulfuric  acid  for  thirty  minutes  will  also  corrode  the 
seed-coat  sufficiently  so  the  seed  will  absorb  water  and  germinate. 

Prom  twenty  to  fifty  percentage  hard  seed  is  common  in  new 
clover  seed,  but  the  hard  seed's  gradually  disappear,  so  that  six  to 
eight  months  after  harvest  five  to  ten  per  cent  hard  seeds  is  about 
normal.  The  hard  seeds  are  determined  by  placing  a  sample  to 
germinate.  All  that  will  grow  at  once  will  germinate  in  six  to  eight 
days.  The  rest  that  show  no  signs  of  decay,  but  appear  to  be  nor- 
mal seeds,  are  counted  as  hard  seeds. 

Weed  Seeds. — Only  a  few  weeds  are  considered  as  really  dan- 
gerous to  introduce.  In  grasses,  Canada  thistle  and  wild  carrot  are 
to  be  watched  for.  In  the  clovers  and  alfalfa  the  dodders  and  buck- 
horn  are  most  dangerous.  In  general,  seed  should  not  be  accepted 
containing  any  of  these  weeds. 

Germination  Tests. — Germination  tests  are  easy  to  make,  by 
means  of  apparatus  which  has  been  described  (p.  18).  These  tests 
should  be  made  where  large  quantities  of  seed  are  to  be  sown  and 
nothing  is  known  about  the  quality. 


Purity,  Germinati 

Name  of  seed 
Kentucky  blue-grass 
Timothy  

on,  and  Life 

Reasonable 
purity 

i   .    80 
..    97 
.  .    90 

History  of  Good  Seeds 

Good                       Vitality  in 
germination             good  storage, 
percentage                    Years 
80                               1-2 
98                               6 
95                          2-3 
95                             2 
85                              2 
95                             5 
98                              6 
98                             6 
95                          6-8 
95                              2 
95                              2 
95                          1-2 
95                          6-8 
95                              3 

Orchard-grass         .  . 

Meadow  fescue     .  •  . 

.  .   97 

Rye-grasses    

.  .   95 

Brome-grass 

.  .   98 

Red  top 

.   97 

Millets 

99 

Red  clover  
V^hite  clover 

..   98 
98 

Alsike  clover 

98 

Crimson  clover  
Alfalfa 

..   98 
98 

Vetches  . 

.   98 

Actual  Value  of  Seed. — In  determining  the  value  of  seed  it  is 
the  custom  to  first  separate  out  the  foreign  matter,  and  then  make 
a  germination  test  of  the  pure  seed.  Then  multiply  the  per  cent 
purity  by  per  cent  of  germination  to  get  an  actual  rating.  For 
example,  a  certain  sample  is  95  per  cent  pure  seed  which  germinates 


WHERE  SEEDS  ARE  GROWN  325 

90  per  cent.  Then  95  times  90  equals  85.5,  the  actual  relative  value 
of  the  seed. 

Adulteration  of  Seeds. — Adulteration  of  seeds  means  the  addi- 
tion of  some  cheaper  seed  that  is  so  similar  that  it  will  not  be  readily 
noticed.  Thus  sweet  clover  or  yellow  trefoil  may  be  added  to  alfalfa 
or  red  clover.  Several  of  the  grasses  are  similar  enough  to  permit 
of  intermixing  without  easy  detection.  Seeds  used  as  adulterants 
are  often  killed  by  heating,  so  the  deception  will  not  be  discovered 
when  the  crop  is  grown.  As  serious  an  offence  is  mixing  old  seed 
that  has  lost  vitality  with  good  seed. 

Buying  Grass  Seed. — Grass  seeds  are  graded  in  the  market 
according  to  quality.  If  only  first-grade  seeds  are  purchased  from 
reliable  seed  houses,  there  will  be  little  danger  of  either  poor  quality 
or  adulteration.  It  is  the  large  demand  by  the  farmers  for  cheap 
seed  that  causes  most  of  the  trouble.  However,  there  are  occasions 
when  very  good  seed  can  be  bought  cheap,  due  to  presence  of  some 
harmless  weed  or  other  impurity  that  may  injure  appearance  but  not 
quality  of  the  seed. 

Where  Seeds  Are  Grown. — According  to  the  Census,  there 
were  6,671,348  bushels  of  grass,  clover,  and  alfalfa  seed  grown  in 
the  United  States.  The  leading  States  in  production  were  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  Kentucky. 

Timothy  seed  is  grown  largely  in  Iowa  and  Minnesota,  though 
some  seed  is  produced  throughout  the  whole  timothy  region.  Iowa 
and  Minnesota  produce  about  two-thirds  of  the  seed  crop. 

Redtop  is  grown  principally  in  southern  Illinois. 

Kentucky  blue-grass  is  grown  principally  in  the  region  of  Lex- 
ington, Kentucky,  though  it  is  also  grown  in  both  Illinois  and  Iowa. 

Canadian  blue-grass  comes  from  the  province  of  Ontario, 
Canada. 

Meadow  fescue,  produced  in  northeastern  Kansas,  Marshall 
County. 

Or  chard- grass. — From  near  Louisville,  Kentucky,  on  both  sides 
of  the  Ohio  Eiver. 

Clover  Seed. — Separate  data  for  each  kind  of  clover  are  not  given. 
Three-fourths  of  the  crop  was,  in  1909,  grown  by  the  five  adjacent 


326  GRASS  MIXTURES— SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 

States,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Indiana,  in  the 
order  named. 

Alfalfa. — The  five  leading  States,  in  1909,  were  Utah,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  California,  and  Arizona,  in  the  order  named,  though  some 
seed  was  produced  in  all  the  western  States. 

Millets  are  mostly  grown  in  the  Missouri  Eiver  valley  region, 
Kansas  leading  in  production. 

Brome-grass,  from  the  Dakotas  and  Minnesota. 

Imported  Seeds. — Considerable  quantities  of  the  following  seeds 
are  imported:  Rye-grass,  meadow  fescue,  brome-grass,  alfalfa,  and 
bent  grass. 

Sowing  Grass  Crops. — The  best  and  most  practical  method  of 
sowing  grass  and  clover  seeds  has  largely  been  worked  out  as  a 
result  of  long  experience  in  each  locality.  In  general,  grass  and 
clover  seeds  should  not  be  sown  more  than  an  inch  deep,  and  less  is 
preferred  if  there  is  sufficient  moisture.  If  necessary,  the  ground 
should  be  well  packed  before  seeding  and  heavily  rolled  after  seed- 
ing to  bring  the  moisture  near  the  surface. 

Grass  and  clovers  will  germinate  at  rather  low  temperatures, 
endure  light  frosts,  and  require  rather  cool  weather  and  plenty  of 
moisture  during  first  few  weeks  of  growth.  They  are,  therefore,  best 
sown  in  early  spring  or  early  fall,  but  are  likely  to  fail  if  sown  in 
summer.  This  rule,  of  course,  varies  with  location.  In  northern 
latitudes  and  humid  regions,  grasses  can  be  sown  any  growing 
month,  but  advancing  southward  or  westward  toward  the  great  dry 
plains  region,  it  becomes  more  and  more  important  to  limit  sowing 
to  the  cooler  portion  of  the  growing  season. 

Nurse  Crops. — The  common  method  of  sowing  grass  or  clover 
seeds  in  all  the  northern  half  .of  the  United  States  is  to  show  the 
seed  with  a  grain  crop,  usually  at  the  time  the  grain  is  sown.  The 
grain  crop  is  called  a  "  Nurse  crop."  The  origin  of  this  term  is  not 
known,  but  it  probably  originated  on  the  theory  that  the  larger  crop 
protects  the  seeding.  This,  however,  is  not  exactly  the  case,  as  it 
robs  the  seeding  of  moisture  and  sunlight.  In  fact,  the  method  is 
only  practical  in  regions  of  considerable  rainfall  and  humid  climate. 
West  of  the  Missouri  River,  where  the  summers  are  hot  and  dry,  the 


AMOUNT  OF  SEED  TO  SOW  327 

young  grass  and  clover  are  usually  killed  by  harvest  time  when  sown 
with  a  grain  crop. 

The  principal  reason  why  nurse  crops  are  used  is  because  grass 
and  clover  sown  alone  will  yield  only  a  small  crop  the  first  year, 
and  would  mean  a  partial  loss  of  the  land  for  one  season.  After 
harvest  the  grass  and  clover  usually  recover  sufficiently  to  make  a  full 
crop  the  next  year.  In  the  case  of  land  infested  by  weeds  it  is 
claimed,,  with  some  reason,  that  a  thin  seeding  of  grain  will  suppress 
the  weeds  and  will  do  less  harm  than  full  competition  with  the  weeds. 

Barley  and  winter  wheat  are  considered  better  nurse  crops  than 
oats,  as  they  shade  the  ground  less. 

Sowing  Grass  Crops  Alone. — West  of  the  Missouri  River,  where 
summers  are  usually  both  hot  and  dry,  it  is  getting  more  common 
to  sow  grass,  clover,  and  alfalfa  alone,  whether  sown  in  the  fall  or 
spring. 

In  the  southern  States  sowing  alone  is  best  if  spring  seeding  is 
practised,  but  the  winters  are  so  mild  that  all  grasses  or  clovers  can 
be  fall  sown.  In  fall  seeding  it  is  more  practical  to  sow  with  fall- 
sown  grain.  The  fall  seeding,  however,  should  be  comparatively 
early  to  insure  strong  growth  of  grass  and  early  harvesting  of  grain 
crop. 

Sowing  in  Cultivated  Crops. — Whenever  there  is  sufficient  late 
summer  rain  to  put  the  soil  in  good  condition,  it  is  very  practical  to 
sow  grass  and  clover  seed  in  a  cultivated  crop  like  corn,  in  early  fall. 
The  greatest  objection  is  the  difficulty  in  smoothing  up  the  land 
afterward,  to  make  a  smooth  mowing  meadow. 

Time  of  Sowing. — In  the  northern  half  of  the  United  States 
early  spring  sowing  is  practised.  The  most  unfavorable  time  is  from 
June  1  to  August  1,  when  hot,  dry  weather  is  likely  to  occur. 

All  the  common  grasses  are  hardy  enough  to  withstand  the  winter 
if  fall  sown  with  the  winter  wheat.  The  clovers  and  alfalfa  are  less 
hardy  and  must  be  sown  early,  generally  not  later  than  August  1  for 
red  clover  or  August  15  for  alfalfa.  As  it  is  not  practical  to  sow 
winter  grain  so  early,  the  general  custom  is  to  sow  timothy  with  the 
wheat,  and  clover  early  the  following  spring. 

Amount  of  Seed  to  Sow. — It  is  the  usual  custom  to  sow  enough 
seed  of  grasses  and  clovers  to  insure  a  full  stand  when  conditions 


328 


GRASS  MIXTURES— SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 


are  unfavorable.  No  injury  results  from  a  very  thick  stand,  while 
it  is  not  very  practical  to  try  to  increase  a  stand  that  should  prove 
too  thin.  The  quantity  of  seed  used  differs  locally,  but  Piper  gives 
the  following  table  as  a  general  guide : 

The  General  Relations  Between  Number  of  Seeds  Sown  and  Final  Stand 


Name  of  plant 

Average 
rate  of 
seeding  to 
the  acre 

Number  of 
seeds  to  the 
pound 

Number  of 
seeds  to  the 
square  foot 

Average 
number  of 
plants  to 
the  square 
foot  for  a 
perfect 
stand 

Red  clover. 

8 

250  000 

47 

15 

Crimson  clover  

15 

130  000 

45 

15 

Alsike  clover  

8 

700  000 

130 

15 

Alfalfa  

20 

200,000 

93 

15 

Sweet  clover 

25 

235  000 

140 

7 

Timothy  

15 

1,100,000 

350 

90 

Kentucky  blue-  grass  
Orchard-grass   . 

25 
20 

2,400,000 
4  500  000 

1400 
210 

130 
90 

Brome-grass 

20 

137  000 

65 

90 

Redtop  .  .  .  .  t  

10 

4,000,000 

930 

140 

Meadow  fescue     .    . 

20 

250,000 

115 

90 

Italian  rye-grass  

30 

270,000 

215 

90 

Perennial  rye-grass  

30 

270,000 

215 

90 

Tall  rye-grass  

40 

150,000 

140 

90 

EXERCISES 

A    STUDY   OF    THE   GERMINATION    OF    SEEDS  * 

(Prepared  by  A.  T.  Wiancko,  Purdue  University) 

Use  seeds  and  boxes  provided  (see  Chapter  III).  Place  a  piece  of 
blotting  paper  in  the  bottom  of  each  tester  or  box  and  have  a  second  piece  to 
cover  the  seeds.  Saturate  both  pieces  of  blotting  paper.  Count  25  kernels 
each  of  corn  and  wheat  and  place  in  one  of  the  boxes.  Count  out  the  same 
number  each  of  clover  and  beans,  and  place  in  the  second  box.  Cover  these 
seeds  with  the  second  piece  of  blotting  paper.  Put  on  the  lid  and  set  aside. 
Examine  every  day  to  note  progress  of  germination  and  condition  of 
moisture. 

1.  What  is  the  first  act  in  the  process  of  germination? 

2.  Which  appears  first,  the  radicle  (root)  or  the  plumule  (leaves)  ? 

3.  How  many  days  are  required  for  germination? 

4.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  manner  in  which  the  cotyledon  (seed) 
is  disposed  of  after  germination?     Explain. 

5.  Two  modes  of  root  development:    axial,  the  radicle  extending  into  a 
taproot  with  more  or  less  branches;   diffuse,  no  evidence  of  taproot,  but 


1  Reprinted  from  the  author's 
lished  by  Ginn  &  Co. 


Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  pub- 


EXERCISES 


329 


numerous  long,  slender  roots.    Which  of  these  seeds  show  such  development? 
Does  this  teach  anything  with  regard  to  soil  preparation? 

6.  Look  for  the  rootcap.     What  seems  to  be  its  office? 

7.  Observe  the  root  hairs.     What  do  you  conclude  their  function  to  be? 
Do  they  teach  anything  about  soil  preparation? 

8.  Make   drawings    illustrating    different    stages    of   development   and 
showing  the  various  points  mentioned  above. 

9.  If  possible  try  the  germination  under  cooler  temperature  and  note 
results. 

DETERMINING  THE  PURE  AND  GERMINABLE  SEEDS  IN  A  SAMPLE  OF  CLOVER  SEED  1 

(Prepared  by  A.  T.  Wiancko,  Purdue  University) 

Take  a  capsule  having  one  gram  of  seed  in  it.  Separate  this  sample 
into  four  parts:  (1)  pure  seed  that  from  appearance  you  judge  would 
grow;  (2)  pure  seed  that  from  appearance  you  judge  would  not  grow;  (3) 
weed  seeds;  (4)  sticks,  chaff',  dirt,  etc. 

Count  the  seeds  in  each  division.  Find  what  per  cent  each  is  of  the 
total  number.  A  pound  contains  454.5  grams.  Calculate  the  number  of 
each  kind  of  seeds  in  a  bushel. 

Put  the  seeds  in  eacli  of  the  above  divisions  into  a  moist  chamber  and 
give  them  the  germination  test.  Calculate  the  per  cent  of  each  division  that 
germinates.  How  does  it  compare  with  the  mechanical  separation?  Cal- 
culate what  per  cent  the  seeds  germinating  in  classes  (1)  and  (2)  are  of 
the  total  number  of  seeds.  If  this  seed  sells  in  the  market  for  $8.00  per 
bushel,  what  is  the  actual  price  per  bushel  for  pure  and  germinable  seed? 

A  written  report  is  requested  one  week  from  the  close  of  the  experiment. 

Suggested  Form  for  Report 


| 

. 

s 

1 

fc 

j 

a 

* 

I 

sL 

Sg 

fH     B, 

SAMPLE  Nui 

PURE  SEED 
(Good  API 
Number) 

GERMINATIO 
(per  cent) 

NUMBER 

PER  BU8H3 

l& 

GERMINATIO 
(per  cent) 

NUMBER 
PER  BUSHI 

WEED  SEEDS 
(per  cent) 

STICKS,  DIR 
(per  cent) 

TOTAL  WEIG 
THAT  WILL 
(per  cen 

ACTUAL  Cos 
THIS  SEED 
BUSHEL 

1 

2 

3 

Name Date. 


Seeding  Machinery. — When  grass  is  sown  with  grain,  it  is  advisable 
to  have  a  grass-seed  attachment  on  the  grain  drill.  The  grass  seed  is  scat- 
tered just  ahead  of  the  grain  drill  shoes  or  hoes,  and  is  covered  up  be- 
tween the  rows  of  grain.  It  is  well  to  follow  with  a  roller  to  firm  the 
soil  and  bring  moisture  near  the  surface.  For  broadcasting  the  wheel- 
barrow seeder  is  probably  best,  but  good  results  are  obtained  by  hand  sow- 
ing or  using  one  of  the  small  cyclone  seeders  of  the  Gaboon  type. 


330 


GRASS  MIXTURES— SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 


IDENTIFICATION  OF  CLOVER  AND   GRASS   SEEDS  * 

There  is  no  work  which  requires  more  careful  attention  or  is  more 
valuable  than  the  identification  of  grass  and  clover  seeds,  and  separating 
them  from  their  adulterants. 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

FIG.   126. — A  student,  identifying  clover  seed. 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains."  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

Fio.   127. — Tripod  lens  used  in  identifying        FIG.  128. — Crimson  clover:  A,  magnified 
seeds.  seeds;  C,  natural  size. 

For  examining  the  seeds  a  small  tripod  lens  is  very  useful.     Use  the 
following  artificial  key,  which  is  not  intended  to  describe   the  seed  but 

1  Exercise  from  author's  "  Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published 
by  Ginn  &  Co. 


EXERCISES 


331 


simply  calls  attention  to  the  most  prominent  characteristics  of  each  variety. 
It  is  much  better  to  first  learn  to  identify  by  use  of  the  key  than  by  use  of 
the  drawings. 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

FIG.   129. — Alfalfa:  A,  magnified  seeds;  D,  FIG.  130. — 'Yellow  trefoil:  A,  magnified 

short   type;   E,  long,    curved   type;    B,   mag-        seeds-   B,  magnified  seed  pod;    C,  natural 
nified  pod;  C,  natural  size.  size. 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

FIG.    131. — White    clover:  A,  mag-        FIG.   132. — Bokhara  clover:    A,    magnified  seeds;  B, 
nified  seeds;  C,  natural  size.  magnified  seed  pod;  C,  natural  size. 

Key  for  Identification  of  Clover  Seeds 
Seed  free    (not  inclosed  in  pod) 
Seed  bean-shaped 

Color,  pinkish,  ^  inch  long Crimson  Clover 

Color,  mostly  yellow ;  large  seeds  are  kidney  shaped Alfalfa 

(Turkestan  alfalfa  is  same,  but  slate  colored.) 


332 


GRASS  MIXTURES— SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

FIG.   133.— Alsike    clover:     A,  magnified  FIG.    134.— Red  clover:     A,   magnified 

seeds;  B,  magnified  seed  pod;  C,  natural 
size. 


seeds;  C,  natural  size. 


B 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

FIG.   135. — Sainfoin:      A,    mag-        FIG.   136. — Sweet    clover:      A  ,  magnified  seeds; 
nifiedseed;  B,  magnified  seed  pod;  B,  magnified  seed  pod;  C,  natural  size. 

C,  natural  size. 

Seeds  larger  and  more  regular  than  in  alfalfa Burr  Clover 

Color,  dark  yellow  to  brown Yellow  Trefoil 

Seed  oval-oblong 

Color,  yellow;  seed  notched  near  one  end Bokhara  Clover 


EXERCISES 


333 


Seed  heart-shaped 

Color,  yellow  to  brown 

Color,  dark  green  to  black 

Seed  somewhat  triangular 

Color,  yellow  to  brownish 

Seed  inclosed  in  pod 

Pod  large  and  corrugated,  %  inch  long 

Color,  brown ;  seed  bean-shaped . .  , 


.White  Clover 
.Alsike  Clover 


Red  Clover 
. .  Sainfoin 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 
FIG.   137. — Japan  clover:  A,  magnified  seeds;  B,  magnified  seed  pod;  C,  natural  size. 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

FIG.  138. — Millet  seeds:  a,  Japanese  millet  (Panicum  crus-galli);  b,  German  millet 
(Chsetochloa  italica) ;  Siberian  millet  (Chsetochloa  italica) ;  d,  Hungarian  millet  (Chsetochloa 
italica);  e,  Broomcorn  millet  Panicum  miliaceum. 

Pod  whitish,  y8  inch  long 

Color,  yellow;  seed  oval,  notched  near  end.  .  .  .Yellow  Sweet  Clover 
Pod  brown,  %  inch  long 

Color,  dark  brown,  seed  mottled Japan  Clover 

Key  for  Identification  of  Grass  Seeds 
Seeds  distinctly  awned 

Seed  y4  inch  or  more  in  length 

Very  hairy  or  pubescent,  flat,  thin Meadow  Foxtail 

Awns  attached  at  tip Annual  Rye-Grass 

Awns  long,  twisted,  attached  near  base.  .  .  .Tall  Meadow  Oat-Grass 
Seeds  less  than  %  inch  long 

Small  brownish  seed Sheep  Fescue 


334 


GRASS  MIXTURES— SEED  AND  SEEDING 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 


FIQ.   139. — Meadow  foxtail:    ^.magnified 
seed;  B,  natural  size. 


FIQ.   140. — Annual  rye  grass:     A, 
fied  seed;  B,  natural  size. 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 


Fia.  141. — Tall  meadow  oat  grass: 
A,  magnified  seeds;  B,  natural  size. 


FIQ.  142. — Sheep  fescue:    A,  mag- 
nified seeds;  B.  natural  size. 


EXERCISES 


335 


Short-awned  or  awn-pointed 

Small,  dark  brown  seeds,  very  rough  near  tip ...  Crested  Dog  s-Tail 

3/8  inch  long,  smooth,  light  colored .Wheat-Grass 

%  inch  or  less  in  length Orchard-Grass 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

FIG.  143. — Crested  dog's  tail:  FIG.  144 — Orchard  grass:     A,  magni- 

A,  magnified  seeds;  B,  natural  size.  fied  seeds;  B,  natural  size. 


B 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

Fia.  145. — Wheat  grass:    A,  magni-  FIG.  146. — Brome-grass:  A,  magni- 

fied seeds;  B,  natural  size.  fied  seeds;  B,  natural  size. 

Awnless 

%  inch  long  or  thereabouts,  nerves  very  prominent  . . .  Brome-GrasB 

About  14  inch  long  f  Note  difference  in  shape  1  .  Perennial  Rye-Grass 

light  brown  . . .  .  \  and  size  of  rachilla . . .  „  j Meadow  Fescue 


336 


GRASS  MIXTURES— SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 


Hard,  smooth  seeds,  about  %  inch  long 

Dark  brown  color Johnson  Grasg 

%  inch  long  or  less 

Keel  rough,  sawlike Redtop 


Author's  "Examining-  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 


FIG.  147.— Perennial  rye 
grass:  A,  magnified  seeds; 
B,  natural  size. 


FIG.  148.— Meadow  fes- 
cue: A,  magnified  seeds; 
B,  natural  size. 


B 


Author's  "Examining'  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

FIG.     149. —  Johnson  FIG.   150. — Redtop:  A,  mag- 

grass:  A,  magnified  seeds;  nified  seeds;  B,  natural  size. 

B,  natural  size. 


Author's  "Examining  and  Grading  Grains,"  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 


FIG.  151. — Ken- 
tucky blue-grass:  A, 
magnified  seeds:  B, 
natural  size. 


FIG.  152.— Timothj 

A,  magnified    seeds 

B,  natural  size. 


Keel  not  commonly  rough Kentucky  Blue-Grass 

Seed  free  from  glumes,  polished 

Very  small,  ¥V  inch  in  length,  polished  . Timothy 


QUESTIONS  337 

Key  for  Identification  of  Millet  Seeds 

Seeds  ovoid,  flattened  on  one  side,  and  inclosed  in  glumes,  usually  shiny, 
from  y1,,  to  2X0   inch  in  length 

Seed  red  or  pink Siberian  Millet 

Seed  yellow German   Millet 

Seed  mostly  black Hungarian  Grass 

Seed  dull  brown,  outer  coverings  loose  and  rough 

Japanese  Barnyard  Millet 

Seed  brownish  yellow    (varieties  of  this  millet  are  white  and 
others  red) Broomcorn  Millet 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  "bottom"  grasses? 

2.  Compare  the  use  of  mixtures  in  Europe  and  America. 

3.  Is  there  more  reason  for  using  mixtures  in  pastures  and  lawns  than 

in  meadows? 

4.  Give  the  main  reasons  for  mixing  timothy  and  red  clover. 

5.  What   disadvantages    in   mixing   red   clover,   redtop   and   orchard-grass 

with  timothy  for  hay? 

6.  How  does  uniformity  of  soil  play  a  part  in  determining  whether  mixt- 

ures should  be  used  or  not? 

7.  Why   is   redtop    and   alsike    sometimes   mixed    with    timothy    and   red 

clover  ? 

8.  State  clearly  the  four  principal  reasons  for  making  mixtures  of  plants 

for   seeding  pastures. 

9.  Which  do  you  consider  the  most  important  reason? 

10.  Work  out  a  good  pasture  mixture  for  your  own  locality. 

11.  What  general  difference  should  be  made  in  choosing  grasses  for  a  tem- 

porary pasture  and  a  permanent  pasture? 

12.  What  is  a  supplementary  pasture? 

13.  What  plants  may  be  used? 

14.  Kind  of  plants  suitable  for  a  temporary  pasture. 

15.  Name  some  of  them. 

16.  Name  the  five  principal  permanent  grasses,  and  give  the  region  and  con- 

ditions under  which  each  should  be  cultivated. 

17.  Compare  Kentucky  and  Canada  blue-grass. 

18.  Compare  redtop  and  Kentucky  blue-grass. 

19.  Where  is  brome-grass  grown?    Bermuda  grass? 

20.  If  blue-grass  is  the  best  pasture  grass,  why  do  we  sow  other  grasses 

with  it? 

21.  Study  mixtures  No.  1  and  No.  2  and  explain  why  the  changes  have  been 

made  in  No.  2. 

22.  Name  some  pasture  grasses  of  secondary  importance. 

23.  How  important  are  natural  grasses? 

24.  Are  they  common  in  your  own  neighborhood  ? 

25.  Is  ability  to  run  wild  a  valuable  quality? 


22 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
CARE  OF  GRASS 

AFTER  land  is  laid  down  to  meadow  or  pasture  it  is  not  the 
general  custom  to  give  it  much  care  or  treatment.  When  the 
meadow  is  in  short  rotation  and  broken  up  in  two  years  it  is  advisable 
to  use  the  manure  and  fertilizers  for  the  benefit  of  the  grain  crops, 
but  if  meadows  are  down  three  or  more  years,  it  is  generally  profitable 
to  begin  fertilizing  the  second  year. 

Fertilizers  for  Grass. — Grass  usually  responds  most  profitably  to 
nitrogen,  and  second  to  phosphate.  Potash  is  usually  plentiful  enough 
in  the  soil  for  grass,  but  its  application  is  very  beneficial  to  clover. 

Nitrogen,  as  pointed  out  heretofore,  stimulates  the  vegetative 
growth  of  plants  rather  than  the  development  of  seeds.  Nitrogen 
then  is  the  most  logical  fertilizer  for  grasses.  Nitrogen  gives  vegeta- 
tion a  dark  green  color,  while  a  lack  of  nitrogen  is  indicated  by  a 
yellow-green  color.  This  can  be  easily  demonstrated  by  throwing  a 
handful  of  sodium  nitrate  on  an  old  lawn  or  meadow  where  the  grass 
is  not  doing  well,  and  note  the  change  in  color  in  about  a  week. 

While  there  is  usually  a  supply  of  nitrogen  in  soils  it  seems  to 
become  unavailable  after  a  year  or  two  when  in  sod.  This  may  be 
due  to  a  lack  of  air  circulation.  The  point  is  demonstrated  by 
breaking  up  an  old  sod  where  the  grass,  by  its  light  green  color  and 
poor  growth,  shows  lack  of  nitrogen.  If  the  land  be  well  prepared 
and  put  in  corn  or  grain,  there  will  usually  be  plenty  of  nitrogen,  as 
indicated  by  the  dark  green  color. 

Phosphate  is  deficient  in  most  of  the  soils  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River  that  have  been  under  cultivation  for  fifty  years  or  more. 
Throughout  the  corn  belt  and  south,  phosphate  is  probably  as  im- 
portant as  nitrogen  for  grass  land,  but  in  the  northeastern  States 
nitrogen  is  considered  more  important. 

Potash  is  an  element  abundant  in  soils,  but  is  so  insoluble 
that  a  small  amount  of  potash  is  generally  profitable  on  grass  land. 
Potash  is  especially  important  for  clover.  It  has  frequently  been 
noted  in  fertilizer  trials  that  the  liberal  use  of  potash  always  gives  a 
much  higher  percentage  of  clover  in  the  herbage  than  when  potash  is 
omitted. 
338 


AMOUNT  TO  APPLY  339 

Form  of  Fertilizer. — The  form  of  fertilizer  for  timothy  meadow 
is  very  important  to  consider.  It  should  be  soluble,  since  the  fer- 
tilizer is  applied  as  a  top-dressing.  While  a  less  soluble  form  would 
be  practical  to  use  for  cultivated  crops  where  it  was  plowed  in,  such 
forms  would  not  be  very  valuable  as  a  top-dressing  on  hay  land.  For 
example,  cottonseed  meal  is  valuable  when  plowed  into  the  soil  for 
corn,  as  it  will  decay  fast  enough  to  become  available  when  the  crop 
needs  it.  However,  cottonseed  meal  scattered  on  a  hay  meadow 
would  do  little  good,  at  least  during  the  season  applied. 

Soluble  Fertilizers. — The  commonest  forms  of  soluble  fertiliz- 
ing materials  suitable  for  top-dressing  meadows  are :  Sodium  nitrate 
and  dried  blood  for  nitrogen;  acid  phosphate  and  treated  bone  for 
phosphate ;  muriate  of  potash  and  sulf ate  of  potash  as  a  source  of 
potash ;  potassium  nitrate  for  both  potash  and  nitrogen. 

Amount  to  Apply. — Generally  the  amount  of  each  ingredient  to 
apply  is  determined  by  experience  or  experiment,  rather  than  by 
arbitrary  rules.  Even  a  soil  analysis  is  very  little  help.  Certain  mix- 
tures have  been  found  to  generally  give  good  results  and  it  is  safer  to 
use  these  until  experience  has  shown  something  else  to  be  better. 

Sodium  nitrate  alone  at  the  rate  of  100  to  200  pounds  per  acre 
is  sometimes  used.  This  will  usually  give  a  profitable  return  for  a 
year  or  two,  but  as  the  soil  is  soon  depleted  of  the  minerals  the  prac- 
tice can  not  be  continued.  In  many  more  cases  a  combination  of 
sodium  nitrate  and  phosphate  is  profitable,  and  on  soils  well  supplied 
naturally  with  potash  will  be  found  satisfactory  for  many  years.  A 
common  application  per  acre  would  be : 

Minimum  Maximum 

Sodium  nitrate 100  200 

Acid  phosphate 75  150 

175  350 

In  practice  it  is  best  to  use  the  minimum  amount  at  first,  but 
experiment  with  the  larger  dosage  to  see  whether  the  land  and  crop 
will  respond. 

In  general,  it  is  best  to  use  a  complete  fertilizer,  not  only  for 
the  grass  crop  but  to  leave  the  land  in  best  condition  for  crops  to 
follow.  The  following  formulae  represent  typical  mixtures  for  grass 
land,  with  the  maximum  and  minimum  quantity  per  acre : 


340  CARE  OF  GRASS 

No.  1. 

Minimum  Maximum 

pounds  pounds 

Sodium  nitrate 100  200 

Acid  phosphate 75  150 

Muriate  potash    25  50 

200  400 

Composition  about  8-6-6.     Cost  $1.80  per  100  pounds. 

No.  2. 

Minimum  Maximum 

pounds  pounds 

Sodium  nitrate 75  150 

Acid  phosphate 75  150 

Muriate  potash    25  50 

175  350 

Composition  about  7-7-7.    Cost  $1.70  per  100  pounds. 

The  amount  to  use  will  vary  with  soils  and  climate  (Fig.  153). 
Too  heavy  an  application  of  nitrate  will  cause  a  rank  growth,  easily 
injured  by  dry  weather.  The  lower  leaves  die  or  "  fire/'  giving  a 
poor  quality  of  hay,  decidedly  off  on  color.  Generally  heavier  appli- 
cations can  be  made  on  heavy  clay  soils  than  on  soils  of  a  sandy 
nature.  Also  in  dry  regions  and  on  dry  soils  the  application  should 
be  lighter  than  on  heavy  soils  or  in  humid  regions.  One  hundred 
pounds  of  nitrate  is  considered  all  that  is  safe  to  apply  on  light  soils 
without  danger  of  "  firing  "  the  hay  in  case  of  a  dry  season.  On 
heavy,  well-watered  clay  soils  300  pounds  can  be  used,  but  under 
average  conditions  it  is  seldom  practical  to  use  above  200  pounds. 

When  to  Apply. — Soluble  fertilizer  should  not  be  applied 
during  the  fall  or  winter  months,  as  it  may  be  easily  washed  away. 
About  one  week  or  two  after  spring  growth  starts  is  considered  best. 
Practically  as  good  results  are  secured  by  applying  all  at  one  time, 
as  compared  with  dividing  the  fertilizer  into  two  or  three  applica- 
tions distributed  through  the  growing  season. 

How  to  Apply. — It  is  quite  important  to  make  a  very  even  dis- 
tribution, as  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  a  double  dose  may  be  in- 
jurious. A  fertilizer  spreader  is  the  best  tool  to  use,  but  a  grain 
drill  with  fertilizer  attachment  is  satisfactory.  When  sown  by  hand, 
it  is  best  to  cross  sow,  to  get  evener  distribution. 

Manure  for  Grass  Land. — Barnyard  manure  as  a  top-dressing 
gives  excellent  results,  and  if  available  at  a  reasonable  cost  there 
would  be  no  occasion  to  use  the  commercial  fertilizer. 


KIND  OF  MEADOWS  TO  FERTILIZE 


341 


While  considerable  soluble  material  is  found  in  the  manure,  yet 
it  can  be  put  on  without  great  danger  of  loss  during  the  winter 
months.,  unless  the  ground  is  too  steep. 

Reasons  for  Fertilizing  Grass  Land. — It  is  a  very  common 
practice  for  farmers  to  reserve  all  manure  for  cultivated  crops,  as 
corn  or  potatoes.  Recent  investigations,  however,  have  shown  that 
greater  profit  can  be  expected  from  applying  the  manure  or  fertilizer 
mainly  to  hay  land.  Not  only  is  the  hay  crop  largely  increased,  but 
the  crops  following  are  generally  increased  as  much  as  though  the 
manure  or  fertilizer  had  been  reserved  for  the  cultivated  crop.  This 


Fia.  153. — Experimental  plots  showing  growth  of  timothy  on  fertilized  and  unfertilized 
plots  (N.  Y.  College  of  Agriculture.) 

plan  probably  would  not  be  practical  except  where  a  large  proportion 
of  the  land  is  in  hay. 

Kind  of  Meadows  to  Fertilize. — All  meadows  do  not  respond 
well  to  fertilizer.     The  principal  matters  to  observe  are : 

1.  That  there  is  a  good  stand  of  grass  roots.     Many  old  meadows 
have  so  little  good  grass  that  there  is  no  opportunity  for  good  results. 

2.  Meadow  must  naturally  be  fairly   productive    (Fig.    154). 
Generally  meadows  so  poor  that  they  will  not  yield  one  ton  per  acre 
do  not  respond  profitably  to  fertilizer.     Other  faults  should  prob- 
ably be  corrected  first,  as  acidity,  drainage,  or  humus  content. 


342  CARE  OF  GRASS 

3.  Lime  must  first  be  applied  to  acid  soils  before  fertilizers  will 
give  results.  This  is  important  throughout  much  of  Ohio,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  the  northeastern  States. 

Weeds  in  Meadows. — Certain  weeds,  such  as  ox-eye  daisy,  flea- 
bane,  and  wild  carrot,  are  serious  pests  in  timothy  meadows.  In 
general,  however,  none  of  these  weeds  can  compete  with  grass  if  con- 
ditions are  made  very  favorable  for  the  grass.  For  example,  at 
Cornell  Experiment  Station,  plats  of  grass  three  years  old  that 
have  received  fertilizer  or  manure  are  free  from  weeds,  while  similar 
plats  unfertilized  are  usually  very  weedy.  The  secret  of  keeping 
weeds  out  is  to  make  conditions  right  for  grass. 


FIG.  154. — A  productive  hay  field,  the  kind  that  usually  responds  well  to  fertilizer.    (Photo 

by  Verne  Morton.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  To  what  fertilizer  does  grass  most  readily  respond? 

2.  What  effect  has  nitrogen  on  vegetation  ? 

3.  Is  phosphate  important? 

4.  Of  what  value  is  potash? 

5.  What  form  should  fertilizer  be  in  for  meadows  and  why? 

6.  What  is  a  soluble  fertilizer? 

7.  Name  some  common  fertilizers. 

8.  Give  the  approximate  amount  of  fertilizer  to  apply. 

9.  When  should  it  be  applied? 

10.  What  manure  is  best  for  grass  land? 

11.  Compare  application  of  manure  or  fertilizer  to  grass  land  and  to  culti- 

vated crops. 

12.  Do  all  meadows  respond  to  fertilizer? 

13.  Name  conditions  of  meadow  before  good  results  are  to  be  expected. 

14.  Why  does  fertilizing  or  manuring  keep  down  weeds? 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 
THE  PRINCIPAL  CULTIVATED  GRASSES 

TIMOTHY 

MORE  than  half  of  the  area  sown  to  cultivated  forage  crops  in 
the  United  States  is  either  part  or  all  timothy.  Timothy  is  the 
dominant  cultivated  grass  in  all  the  region  north  of  the  Ohio  Eiver 
and  east  of  the  Missouri  River  (Fig.  155). 

Origin  and  History. — While  botanists  recognize  ten  species  of 
timothy,  yet  only  one  of  these  has  agricultural  value.  All  but  one 
species  of  the  wild  timothies  are  found  growing  in  Europe,  and  the 
cultivated  variety  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  from  Europe 
into  the  United  States.  The  cultivation  of  timothy  undoubtedly 
began  in  the  United  States.  In  1747  it  is  noted  that  a  man  named 
Herd,  of  New  Hampshire,  was  cultivating  timothy,  and  some  suppose 
he  introduced  it  from  Europe.  About  the  same  time  it  is  also  noted 
that  Timothy  Hansen  introduced  the  grass  into  Maryland  from 
some  point  in  New  England.  For  many  years  the  grass  was  known 
both  as  timothy  and  Herd's  grass.  Timothy  is  now  the  common 
name  throughout  the  world,  although  it  is  still  sometimes  referred  to 
as  Herd's  grass  in  New  England.  This  causes  some  confusion,  how- 
ever, as  the  name  Herd's  grass  is  also  applied  to  redtop  in  other 
sections. 

Climatic  Adaptations. — Timothy  requires  a  rather  cool,  humid 
climate,  and  is  quite  sensitive  to  hot,  dry  weather.  It  is  not  adapted 
to  the  southern  half  of  the  United  States,  as  it  will  usually  summer 
kill.  For  this  reason  very  little  timothy  is  found  south  of  the  Ohio 
River,  except  in  the  higher  elevations  along  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains. Also  west  of  the  Missouri  River  it  is  likely  to  be  so  severely 
injured  by  the  long  midsummer  drought  that  timothy  is  not  highly 
regarded  as  a  hay  crop.  We  therefore  find  timothy  distributed  in 
the  eastern  United  States  about  as  far  south  as  Kentucky,  but  in 
the  great  plains  regions  not  very  much  south  of  the  Dakotas ;  then 
westward  to  the  coast. 

343 


344 


THE  PRINCIPAL  CULTIVATED  GRASSES 


While  timothy  is  so  important  in  the  United  States,  it  has  never 
become  an  important  cultivated  grass  in  Europe,  probably  because 

their  milder  winters  permit  them  to 
grow  the  rye-grasses  which  seem  to  be 
more  popular. 

Advantages  of  Timothy. — The  rea- 
sons why  timothy  culture  is  so  popular 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  It  produces  seed  abundantly  and 
at  a  low  cost.     This  adapts  it  to  use  in 
rotation  where  the  grass  must  be  plowed 
up  occasionally.    The  seed  usually  costs 
not  over  a  dollar  an  acre  and  grows 
very  readily. 

2.  Timothy     makes     an     excellent 
grade  of  hay,  and  has  one  great  advan- 
tage over  many  grasses  in  that  it  retains 
its  quality  for  a  period  of  at  least  two 
or  three  weeks.     Orchard-grass,  for  ex- 
ample, must  be  cut  as  soon  as  it  comes 
to   bloom,   or   it   will   quickly  become 
woody  and  poor  in  quality.     Timothy, 
however,  will  make  a  good  grade  of  hay 
for  at  least  three  weeks  after  bloom.    This 
is  a  great  advantage  to  the  farmer,  as  he 
can  not  always  arrange  farm  work  to 
take  care  of  hay  at  some  particular  time. 

3.  Because    of   its   reliable   quality, 
timothy  has  come  to  be  the  standard 
hay  in  the  city  markets.    A  higher  price 
is  paid  for  timothy  than  any  other  hay. 

4.  Timothy    mixes    well    with    red 
clover.    Most  farmers  like  to  grow  some 
red  clover  when  they  are  using  grass 
in  a  rotation. 

Seed   and   Seeding. — Very  little   difficulty  is  experienced  in 
securing  good  timothy  seed  of  high  vitality.     The  legal  weight  of 


FIG.   155.— Timothy  head. 


SEED  AND  SEEDING  345 

timothy  seed  is  45  pounds  per  bushel,  and  it  should  show  a  germina- 
tion in  five  or  six  days  of  at  least  98  per  cent.  In  good  storage, 
timothy  will  retain  its  vitality  for  five  years,  but  generally  seed 
more  than  two  to  three  years  old  is  not  considered  reliable. 

Rate  of  Seeding. — The  amount  of  seed  used  per  acre  varies  from 
eight  to  thirty  pounds,  while  eight  pounds  per  acre  will  give  a  good 
stand  if  all  conditions  are  favorable,  yet  in  general  practice  very 
unfavorable  climatic  or  soil  conditions  are  likely  to  occur,  and 
farmers  have  generally  found  by  experience  that  it  is  safer  to  sow 
fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  to  be  sure  of  a  good  stand.  Fifteen  pounds 
of  seed  per  acre  will  give  about  350  seeds  per  square  foot.  It  is 
generally  considered  that  100  plants  per  square  foot  are  necessary 
for  a  good  stand. 

Methods  of  Seeding. — Perhaps  nine-tenths  of  the  timothy  sown 
in  the  northeastern  United  States  is  sown  in  the  fall  with  winter 
wheat.  It  is  the  general  practice  to  have  a  grass  seeder  attachment 
to  the  grain  drill,  which  scatters  the  seed  just  ahead  of  the  drill. 
The  seed  may  also  be  sown  after  drilling  the  wheat,  but  this  is  not 
considered  good  practice,  since  the  seed  will  then  usually  lodge 
in  the  drill  rows  and  come  up  with  the  wheat  instead  of  between  the 
wheat  rows.  It  is  generally  considered  good  practice  to  roll  the  land 
after  sowing  timothy  seed  in  order  to  fipm  the  soil  and  bring 
moisture  to  the  surface. 

In  many  regions  where  the  summers  are  hot  and  dry,  it  has  not 
been  found  good  practice  to  sow  timothy  with  wheat,  as  the  more 
vigorous  wheat  will  rob  the  timothy  of  moisture,  and  after  harvest 
the  young  plants,  suddenly  exposed  to  the  hot  sun,  will  be  destroyed. 
In  such  places  it  is  the  common  practice  to  sow  timothy  alone  in  the 
fall.  If  sown  about  the  first  part  of  August,  it  will  make  an  excellent 
fall  growth,  and  almost  a  full  crop  of  grass  the  next  season.  This 
method  is  also  sometimes  practised  in  the  South  where  timothy  sum- 
mer kills.  However,  before  it  summer  kills  a  light  cutting  of  grass 
can  easily  be  secured. 

Where  fall  wheat  is  not  grown,  the  timothy  is  most  commonly 
spring  sown  with  either  oats  or  barley.  Little  difficulty  is  experi- 
enced in  securing  a  good  stand  in  this  way,  but  the  plants  are  not  as 


346  THE  PRINCIPAL  CULTIVATED  GRASSES 

strong  and  usually  will  not  produce  as  heavy  a  hay  crop  the  following 
season  as  when  fall  sown  with  wheat. 

In  dry  regions,  the  timothy  should  be  sown  alone  in  the  spring  as 
well  as  in  the  fall. 

Lime  and  Fertilizers. — Timothy  does  best  on  a  limestone  soil, 
but  is  not  as  sensitive  to  a  lack  of  lime  as  red  clover  or  alfalfa.  How- 
ever, on  a  large  proportion  of  the  land  where  timothy  is  grown  in 
northeastern  United  States  lime  has  been  found  to  be  very  beneficial 
to  timothy. 

Fertilizing  timothy  meadows  is  just  now  becoming  a  general 
practice  throughout  the  timothy  belt.  In  general,  timothy  gives  the 
greatest  response  to  some  form  of  nitrogen,  and,  second,  to  phosphate. 
It  is  a  general  practice  to  apply  the  fertilizer  as  a  top  dressing  in 
the  spring,  and  for  this  reason  it  should  be  in  a  very  soluble  form  so 
that  the  first  rain  may  dissolve  the  fertilizer  and  carry  it  into  the  soil. 
The  top  dressing  is  usually  applied  just  after  spring  growth  starts 
(see  Chapter  XXXVI). 

Where  timothy  is  grown  in  rotation,  it  is  believed  that  a  greater 
return  for  fertilizers  or  manure  can  be  obtained  when  applied  to 
timothy  than  any  other  crop,  with  the  possible  exception  of  potatoes. 
Not  only  is  the  timothy  itself  much  improved,  but  it  has  been  found 
that  the  grain  crop  following  a  timothy  sod  that  has  been  fertilized 
is  always  much  larger  than  after  unfertilized  timothy,  thus  giving  a 
double  return. 

Time  to  Cut  for  Hay. — All  young  grass  is  very  nutritious  and 
highly  digestible,  and  decreases  in  quality  as  it  matures.  However, 
the  total  dry  weight  in  timothy  increases  steadily  until  the  seed  has 
reached  the  dough  stage,  after  which  it  usually  decreases  somewhat  in 
dry  weight,  probably  due  to  the  loss  of  dead  leaves  and  perhaps  the 
storing  of  some  material  in  the  roots.  In  general,  when  both  quality 
and  quantity  are  considered,  timothy  should  be  cut  for  hay  when 
in  full  bloom.  From  this  time  on  to  the  dough  stage  of  the  seed  it 
deteriorates  slowly,  but  after  the  dough  stage  it  loses  in  quality  very 
rapidly.  In  general,  there  is  a  period  of  two  to  three  weeks  after 
full  bloom  when  good  quality  of  hay  can  be  secured.  The  main  objec- 
tion to  cutting  timothy  in  full  bloom  is  that  there  will  be  more  or  less 
pollen  dust  present,  which  is  sometimes  irritating  to  horses.  It  is 


DISEASES  AND  INSECTS  347 

also  a  little  more  difficult  to  cure  at  this  stage  than  when  cut  a  week 
or  two  later.  For  these  reasons,  those  who  grow  hay  for  market 
usually  cut  it  rather  mature. 

Composition  and  Feeding  Value. — Timothy  hay  is  rather  low 
in  protein,  and  would  therefore  be  classed  with  the  feeds  suitable  for 
fattening  stock  or  mature  animals  rather  than  with  the  feeds  for 
young  growing  stock.  Generally  where  timothy  has  been  compared 
with  clover  in  feeding  either  young  stock  or  fat  stock,  it  has  not  given 
as  good  returns  as  clover  hay  unless  considerable  nitrogenous  feed 
was  used  as  a  balance  in  the  grain  ration.  However,  for  horses,  it 
is  generally  preferred  as  a  hay  to  red  clover,  the  ration  being  balanced 
by  the  use  of  nitrogenous  concentrates.  This  is  especially  true  with 
livery  horses  in  the  cities,  as  clover  hay  has  a  rather  loosening  effect 
on  the  bowels.  On  the  farms,  generally,  a  mixture  of  clover  and 
timothy  is  preferred  to  pure  timothy. 

Yield  and  Life  History. — Timothy  is  propagated  from  year  to 
year  by  means  of  small  bulblets.  New  bulblets  are  formed  each  year 
about  the  time  timothy  is  in  seed.  These  bulblets  are  attached  to 
the  base  of  the  old  stems.  They  develop  during  the  fall,  live  over 
winter,  and  produce  the  new  stems  and  seed  stalks  the  following  year. 
As  soon  as  the  plant  has  produced  seed,  the  old  stem  and  bulblet  dies, 
but  meantime  a  new  one  is  formed  for  the  following  year. 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  timothy  usually  produces  its  maxi- 
mum crop  the  second  or  third  year  after  sowing,  after  which  it  is 
likely  to  decline  more  or  less.  However,  this  decline  seems  to  de- 
pend very  largely  on  available  fertility,  the  application  of  fertilizers 
and  manure  will  keep  a  sod  in  a  highly  productive  condition  for 
many  years.  In  fact,  old  timothy  sods  are  known  on  rich,  moist  land 
to  remain  in  productive  condition  for  more  than  fifty  years. 

Diseases  and  Insects. — Timothy  smut  is  more  or  less  common, 
and  in  some  regions  has  a  decidedly  injurious  effect  on  the  yield. 
The  extent  of  its  injury  is  usually  not  known,  since  the  smutty  plants 
fail  to  grow  large,  and  their  presence  would  not  be  observed  in  a 
casual  examination.  Timothy  rust  occasionally  does  some  harm, 
but  is  not  considered  serious. 

Insect  enemies  do  very  little  harm.  The  timothy  straw  worm  is 
probably  the  most  common. 


348 


THE  PRINCIPAL  CULTIVATED  GRASSES 


FIG.  156.— Redtop. 


REDTOP 

The  name  redtop  is  gener- 
ally used  for  this  plant,  though 
it  is  also  known  as  Herd's 
grass  in  southern  United  States, 
as  florin  in  Europe,  and  bent 
grass  in  England.  The  true 
bent  grass,  however,  is  really 
a  smaller  form,  with  more 
stolon  if  erous  habit  than  the 
common  redtop  (Fig.  156). 

Origin  and  History.  — 
Eedtop  shows  great  variation 
in  form.  The  taller  species 
are  usually  upright  in  habit 
of  growth,  and  while  they 
spread  from  underground 
roots  are  not  decidedly  stolon- 
iferous.  Usually  the  smaller 
forms  are  more  prostrate  in 
growth  and  more  stoloniferous. 
The  common  form  of  culti- 
vated redtop  is  native  through- 
out Europe,  and  was  probably 
introduced  to  this  country. 
However,  one  small  form, 
known  as  "Rhode  Island  bent," 
is  native  to  America.  Another 
small,  creeping  form  is  the 
common  sf  creeping  bent " 
grass  of  Europe.  Redtop  was 
first  cultivated  in  Europe,  but 
has  been  known  as  a  cul- 
tivated crop  in  this  country 
for  about  one  hundred  years. 
It  apparently  gained  recog- 
nition much  later  than  tim- 
othy. 


REDTOP  FOR  PASTURE  AND  MEADOW  349 

Climatic  Adaptations. — Redtop  naturally  grows  best  in  a  rather 
moist  soil  and  cool  climate,  without  excessive  summer  heat.  How- 
ever, it  differs  from  timothy  in  having  a  much  wider  adaptation.  It 
will  stand  higher  summer  temperature,  much  wetter  soil,  as  well 
as  drier  soil.  Redtop  is  not  considered  so  good  a  hay  grass  as 
timothy,  and  therefore  can  not  compete  with  timothy  where  the  latter 
succeeds.  However,  in  all  the  northeastern  United  States,  wherever 
timothy  fails,  redtop  is  likely  to  be  substituted.  This  is  especially 
true  throughout  all  the  hill  lands  in  New  York  and  the  New  Eng- 
land States,  where  the  soil  is  too  acid  for  timothy.  Redtop  will  with- 
stand acid  soil  and  is  the  dominant  grass  on  all  these  hills.  Redtop 
is  also  grown  to  some  extent  about  the  southern  edge  of  the  timothy 
belt.  It  has  always  been  considered  as  especially  adapted  to  very  wet 
lands,  and  is  commonly  sown  on  wet  lands,  pastures  or  meadows. 
Redtop  is  extensively  grown  on  the  great,  flat  clay  lands  of  southern 
Illinois.  These  lands  usually  require  two  or  three  tons  of  limestone 
to  the  acre  to  counteract  their  acidity.  These  lands  are  also  de- 
cidedly wet  and  in  need  of  drainage.  Throughout  this  area  redtop 
is  grown  as  a  hay  crop,  and  practically  all  of  the  seed  in  the  United 
States  is  produced  here. 

Life  History. — Redtop  spreads  rather  slowly  from  the  root,  and 
usually  forms  a  close,  compact  sod.  It  has  short  root  stalks  three  to 
six  inches  in  length  as  a  general  rule,  but  individual  plants  vary  a 
great  deal  in  this  respect.  Redtop  is  usually  considered  as  a  perma- 
nent grass,  the  root  stalks  constantly  reproducing  vigorous  new 
plants  that  maintain  the  stand.  Its  vigorous  sod-forming  habits 
make  it  a  grass  well  adapted  for  permanent  pastures,  either  alone  or 
mixed  with  other  grasses  that  need  a  filler  to  produce  good  sod. 

Redtop  for  Pasture  and  Meadow. — In  general,  redtop  is  not 
considered  to  be  so  nutritious  or  productive  as  timothy.  Its  prin- 
cipal merit  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  will  grow  where  timothy  fails. 
Redtop  pasture  is  nutritious,  but  it  is  generally  been  observed  that 
where  animals  had  a  mixed  pasture  of  redtop  and  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  they  are  likely  to  choose  the  blue-grass  in  preference  to  redtop. 

Redtop  hay  of  good  quality  can  be  secured  if  cut  green  enough, 
but  the  plant  rapidly  deteriorates  in  quality  after  the  blooming 
period.  For  this  reason  it  is  generally  not  considered  desirable  to 


350  THE  PRINCIPAL  CULTIVATED  GRASSES 

mix  redtop  with  timothy,  as  the  market  usually  discriminates  against 
redtop  hay.  However,  there  are  large  regions  where  redtop  is  the 
principal  hay  grass,  and  farmers  have  learned  to  cut  it  fairly  green. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — Redtop  seed  is  usually  abundant  and  cheap. 
It  germinates  very  quickly  under  favorable  conditions  in  two  to 
three  days.  Where  sown  alone,  about  ten  pounds  to  the  acre  are 
used,  but  in  mixtures  the  quantity  is  often  cut  down  to  as  low  as 
two  to  five  pounds.  If  too  much  redtop  is  used  in  mixtures,  its 
quick,  vigorous  growth  is  likely  to  crowd  out  other  grasses. 

In  general,  redtop  is  sown  in  about  the  same  way  and  at  the 
same  time  as  timothy.  The  two  grasses  are  grown  in  the  same 
region  and  their  cultural  methods  differ  very  little. 

BENT  GRASSES 

The  bent  grasses  differ  from  redtop  in  being  much  smaller, 
more  prostrate,  and  with  a  stoloniferous  root  system.  They  have 
about  the  same  climatic  and  soil  adaptations.  Their  yield  is 
small,  and  they  are  not  usually  grown  for  agricultural  purposes. 
However,  they  make  excellent  lawn  grasses,  and  are  used  for 
this  purpose,  especially  on  soil  where  blue-grass  does  not  succeed. 
They  will  withstand  more  shade  than  blue-grass  and  grow  on  acid 
soil.  They  are  also  especially  adapted  to  sandy  soil.  The  bent 
grasses  will  also  endure  a  very  close  mowing,  and  are  used  for  putting 
greens  on  golf  links. 

ORCHARD-GRASS 

Orchard-grass  is  in  many  respects  a  very  excellent  grass,  but  up 
to  the  present  time  it  has  not  received  the  extensive  culture  that  it 
probably  would  if  the  seed  was  cheaper  (Fig.  157).  It  costs  from 
four  to  five  times  as  much  to  seed  an  acre  with  orchard-grass  as  with 
timothy  or  redtop.  Also  the  hay  value  rapidly  deteriorates  after 
blooming  period,  resulting  in  a  rather  poor  quality  of  hay  unless 
care  is  taken  to  harvest  it  at  just  the  right  period. 

Origin  and  History. — The  cultivated  form  of  orchard-grass  is 
found  growing  wild  throughout  Europe  and  the  northern  half  of 
Asia.  There  are  several  species,  all  of  which  have  some  agricultural 
value,  but  the  cultivated  form,  though  quite  variable,  all  belongs  to 
one  variety. 


ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES 


351 


Orchard-grass  had  an  early 
introduction  into  this  coun- 
try, probably  about  the  year 
1740.  Both  timothy  and  or- 
chard-grass, while  of  Euro- 
pean origin,  appear  to  have 
received  their  first  extensive 
cultivation  in  North  Amer- 
ica, and  were  afterwards  re- 
introduced  into  Europe.  Its 
name  is  probably  derived  from 
the  fact  that  it  could  be  grown 
in  partial  shade,  and  seemed 
to  be  adapted  to  culture  in 
orchards. 

Climatic  and  Soil  Adap- 
tations.— Orchard-grass  is  not 
as  hardy  in  the  exterme  north 
as  timothy,  but  can  be  culti- 
vated with  success  two  or  three 
hundred  miles  farther  south. 
It  will  not  only  withstand 
hotter  and  drier  summer 
weather  than  timothy,  but 
will  also  endure  wetter  soils. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  grasses 
for  river  bottom  lands,  sub- 
ject to  overflow,  as  it  will 
endure  flooding  for  one  to  two 
weeks  without  injury.  Or- 
chard-grass, like  redtop,  has  a 
somewhat  wider  adaptation  to 
different  soils  and  climatic  con- 
ditions than  timothy.  FlG-  157.— Orchard-grass. 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages. — The  greater  resistance  of 
orchard-grass  to  summer  heat  gives  it  a  decided  advantage  over 
timothy  along  the  southern  edge  of  the  timothy  belt.  Here  it  has 


352  THE  PRINCIPAL  CULTIVATED  GRASSES 

come  into  most  general  culture.  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  southern 
Missouri  are  the  regions  where  it  has  attained  its  greatest  importance 
as  a  forage  crop.  As  a  pasture  plant,  orchard-grass  starts  spring 
growth  earlier  than  any  other  common  grass,  with  the  possible  ex- 
ception of  smooth  brome-grass.  Orchard-grass  also  produces  a  very 
heavy  aftermath  of  basal  leaves  after  the  seed  is  harvested.  This 
aftermath  continues  growth  through  the  fall  much  later  than  other 
grasses.  In  fact,  it  continues  to  grow  until  hard  freezing  weather. 
It  thus  has  an  important  place  in  pasture  mixtures  by  furnishing 
early  spring  and  late  fall  pasture.  Its  main  disadvantages  are  the 
high  price  of  seed,  the  fact  that  it  forms  a  rather  poor  sod,  being 
a  decided  bunch  grass,  and  also  loses  in  quality  as  it  matures.  In 
pastures  it  is  usually  necessary  to  keep  it  cropped  close  or  cattle  will 
refuse  to  eat  it  when  it  has  gone  to  seed.  If  it  grows  too  large,  it  is 
generally  best  to  mow  the  pasture,  when  the  aftermath  will  come  on 
at  once  and  furnish  good  pasture  the  rest  of  the  season. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — The  seed  of  orchard-grass  is  produced  prin- 
cipally in  the  United  States  (see  page  325)  and  New  Zealand.  In 
general,  the  quality  is  fair,  but  it  is  likely  to  contain  a  rather  high 
per  cent  of  chaff.  The  ordinary  rate  of  seeding  is  about  twenty 
pounds  per  acre.  Orchard-grass  is  not  as  winter  resistant  as 
timothy,  and  therefore  should  not  be  sown  in  the  fall  unless  sown 
very  early.  It  is  the  general  custom  to  sow  it  in  the  spring.  It  may 
be  sown  either  "with  a  nurse  crop,  such  as  oats,  or  upon  fall  wheat  in 
February.  Orchard-grass  seed  does  not  usually  feed  well  through 
a  drill,  and  must  be  sown  broadcast.  The  wheelbarrow  seeder  is 
probably  the  best  means  of  sowing  it. 

Mixtures  of  Orchard-grass. — As  orchard-grass  forms  a  poor 
sod,  it  is  the  general  custom  to  mix  other  grasses  with  it  for  pasture 
purposes.  Kedtop  and  blue-grass  "are  both  suitable,  as  they  are  good 
sod-forming  grasses.  For  hay  purposes,  however,  clover  is  usually 
mixed  with  orchard-grass.  Another  grass  which  also  has  been  found 
as  a  suitable  mixture,  largely  because  it  matures  at  the  same  time,  is 
tall  meadow  oat-grass.  It,  however,  is  also  a  bunch  grass,  and  when 
these  are  sown  alone  weeds  are  apt  to  give  much  trouble.  In  the 
seed-growing  regions  it  has  been  found  very  satisfactory  to  sow 
about  twenty  pounds  of  orchard-grass  and  ten  pounds  of  red  clover. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  BLUE-GRASS  353 

The  seed  is  harvested  by  cutting  very  high  with  a  self-binder,  leaving 
most  of  the  clover  uncut.  The  field  is  then  mowed  later,  giving  a 
mixture  of  orchard-grass  and  clover,  which  makes  satisfactory  hay. 
These  fields  also  furnish  excellent  pasture  late  in  the  fall.  Pastur- 
age does  not  seem  to  injure  the  orchard-grass,  either  for  seed  or 
for  hay  purposes. 

In  permanent  pasture  mixtures,  usually  not  more  than  five 
pounds  of  orchard-grass  are  used  per  acre.  It  is  a  very  long  lived 
and  persistent  grass.  The  bunches  very  slowly  spread,  and  on  land 
suited  to  orchard-grass  it  will  usually  come  to  be  dominant  in  time. 

THE    BLUE-GRASSES 

We  have  two  agricultural  grasses  known  as  blue-grass.  Kentucky 
blue-grass  (Fig.  158)  is  the  more  extensively  grown  and  the  more 
valuable.  Canadian  blue-grass  is  much  less  productive,  but  will 
grow  on  some  soils  where  the  Kentucky  blue-grass  fails.  Both  are 
primarily  pasture  grasses  and  are  very  seldom  cultivated  for  hay 
purposes. 

Kentucky  Blue-grass — Origin  and  History. — Kentucky  blue- 
grass,  generally  known  simply  as  blue-grass,  and  occasionally  as  June 
grass,  is  of  European  origin.  It  was  early  introduced  into  this  coun- 
try from  Europe,  and  spread  rapidly,  especially  in  the  limestone 
regions.  It  is  now  found  growing  wild  through  most  of  North 
America,  except  the  southern  portion.  The  grass  is  characteristic 
of  the  limestone  region  in  Kentucky,  from  which  it  derives  the  name. 

Soil  and  Climatic  Adaptations. — Blue-grass  prefers  a  rather 
cool,  humid  climate,  and  moist,  well-watered  soil.  While  its  range 
extends  200  to  300  miles  south  of  the  timothy  region,  it  is  not  well 
adapted  to  the  Gulf  States.  During  hot,  dry  weather,  blue-grass 
usually  becomes  dormant,  and  the  leaves  may  entirely  die  and  dry 
up.  With  the  coming  of  fall  rains  and  cool  weather,  it  quickly  re- 
vives and  will  grow  well  up  into  the  winter. 

Blue-grass  is  decidedly  partial  to  limestone  soils.  It  probably 
does  not  require  as  much  lime  as  red  clover  or  alfalfa,  but  is  not 
generally  considered  a  valuable  grass  outside  of  limestone  regions. 

Characteristics  of  Blue-grass. — Blue-grass  is  a  rather  fine- 
stemmed  grass,  with  a  strong  underground  root  system.  It  spreads 
23 


354 


THE  PRINCIPAL  CULTIVATED  GRASSES 


^very  rapidly  by  means  of  rhi- 
zomes. It  is  considered  prac- 
tically a  permanent  grass.  A 
good  blue-grass  sod  continues 
to  improve  for  many  years,  and 
if  given  fair  treatment,  appar- 
ently never  deteriorates. 

Kentucky  blue-grass  grows 
very  slowly  at  first,  and,  even 
when  sown  thickly,  requires 
two  to  three  years  to  make  a 
good  sod.  In  pasture  mixtures, 
usually  it  takes  four  or  five 
years  before  blue-grass  is  dom- 
inant. Blue-grass  is  so  persistent 
that  it  will  drive  out  every  other 
grass  in  the  course  of  time. 

Blue-grass  is  very  seldom 
cut  for  hay.  It  is  not  a  heavy 
yielder  of  forage,  either  in  hay 
or  pasture,  but  its  other  merits 
offset  its  low  yield  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  is  the  most 
popular  'pasture  grass  in  the 
United  States. 

Seeds  and  Seeding. — Most 
of  our  popular  forage  grasses 
are  characterized  by  abundant 
production  of  seed  of  good 
quality.  In  this  respect  blue- 
grass  is  an  exception,  as  the 
seed  is  always  rather  high 
priced,  and  not  of  very  good 
quality.  Commercial  seed  will 
usually  not  germinate  above  fifty  or  sixty  per  cent,  and  considerable 
amount  of  seed  on  the  market  will  not  show  above  ten  to  twenty 
per  cent  germination.  For  this  reason  great  care  should  be  exercised 


FIG.  158. — Kentucky  blue-grass  on  left  and 
Canadian  blue-grass  on  right.  Note  the 
crooked  stem  and  smaller  head  in  Canadian 
blue-grass. 


SEED  PRODUCTION  355 

in  the  purchase  of  blue-grass  seed.  The  seed  is  expensive  and  would 
ordinarily  cost  $10  to  $15  an  acre  for  a  full  seeding.  However,  the 
grass  is  so  persistent  that  if  a  small  quantity  of  the  seed,  five  or  ten 
pounds  per  acre,  be  included  in  the  grass  mixture,  it  will  in  time 
completely  possess  the  land.  This  is  the  way  it  is  usually  sown, 
Very  commonly,  when  it  is  expected  to  turn  a  timothy  meadow  into 
pasture  after  three  or  four  years,  a  little  blue-grass  will  be  sown  with 
the  timothy.  In  three  or  four  years  it  will  be  in  marked  evidence, 
and  after  about  two  years'  pasture,  will  probably  possess  the  ground. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  probably  ninety  per  cent  of  the  blue-grass 
pastures  have  never  been  sown,  but  developed  voluntarily.  Through 
all  the  middle  western  States  may  'be  found  excellent  blue-grass 
pastures  of  this  character.  These  pastures  were  originally  wild 
prairie  grasses,  but  after  a  time  blue-grass  began  to  appear  and 
steadily  spread  until  little  else  is  now  to  be  found  in  the  pastures. 

For  blue-grass  mixtures,  see  page  308,  where  the  subject  is  dis- 
cussed. 

Time  of  Seeding. — When  blue-grass  spreads  naturally,  the  seed 
usually  falls  upon  the  ground  during  July  and  germinates  with  the 
first  fall  rains,  or  may  lie  on  the  ground  all  winter.  Early  fall  seed- 
ing is  one  of  the  most  favorable  times  to  sow  it.  Early  spring 
seeding  is  also  satisfactory,  as  the  young  grass  always  grows  well 
during  rather  cool,  moist  weather.  The  most  unfavorable,  time  is 
at  the  beginning  of  hot  weather  in  midsummer. 

For  a  full  stand  of  blue-grass,  at  least  fifty  pounds  to  the  acre 
is  required,  but  in  ordinary  practice  five  to  ten  pounds  is  generally 
found  satisfactory.  The  lighter  seeding  will  require  a  year  or  two 
longer  for  the  blue-grass  to  be  in  full  possession,  but  as  it  is  generally 
sown  with  other  grasses  that  provide  temporary  pasture,  this  is  not 
considered  a  disadvantage. 

Seed  Production. — Blue-grass  seed  is  mostly  produced  in  the 
north  central  part  of  Kentucky,  but  is  harvested  in  smaller  quantities 
in  several  other  sections,  particularly  Iowa  and  northern  Missouri. 
When  the  seed  is  ripe,  it  is  usually  stripped  with  machines  that  tear 
off  the  head.  The  stripped  head  is  then  carefully  cured.  The  great- 
est care  is  needed  in  curing,  as  this  material  seems  to  heat  very 
readily  and  vitality  of  the  seed  is  quickly  destroyed.  As  threshed, 


356  THE  PRINCIPAL  CULTIVATED  GRASSES 

the  seed  ordinarily  weighs  from  ten  to  twenty  pounds  per  bushel, 
as  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  chaff.  Carefully  recleaned  seed  will 
weigh  as  high  as  thirty  pounds  to  the  bushel.  Blue-grass  seed  is 
usually  sold  by  the  pound,  and  in  all  cases  the  recleaned  seed  should 
be  preferred,  as  it  contains  so  much  smaller  a  percentage  of  hull. 

Canadian  Blue-grass — Origin  and  History. — Canada  blue- 
grass  is  a  native  of  Europe,  but  had  a  very  early  introduction  into 
North  America.  It  seems  to  be  particularly  well  suited  to  Canadian 
climate  and  soil,  especially  the  province  of  Ontario.  It  is  found 
growing  wild  very  generally  through  Canada  and  northeastern 
United  States.  In  adaptation,  it  differs  from  Kentucky  blue-grass 
in  its  ability  to  grow  on  poor  and  dry  soil,  and  also  in  soils  rather  low 
in  lime  content. 

In  appearance,  Canada  blue-grass  differs  from  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  in  having  a  flat  stem  instead  of  round,  in  having  a  much  more 
compact  seed  head,  and  a  decided  bend  in  stem  at  each  joint,  while 
the  Kentucky  blue-grass  stem  is  straight..  It  is  also  much  less  pro- 
ductive than  the  Kentucky  blue-grass.  Canada  blue-grass  also  is  a 
whitish-green  color,  while  the  Kentucky  blue-grass  is  a  yellow-green 
color. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — Canada  blue-grass  is  grown  only  for  pas- 
ture purposes,  though  it  is  occasionally  used  for  lawns  on  poor  soils. 
It  is  a  very  persistent  grass,  and  five  to  ten  pounds  to  the  acre  in  a 
mixture  will  be  sufficient  to  give  a  good  start.  It  should  not  be  used 
where  Kentucky  blue-grass  will  grow,  but  is  a  very  desirable  grass  for 
poor  soils.  The  seed  is  usually  abundant  and  cheaper  than  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass,  and  for  that  reason  is  sometimes  used  as  an 
adulterant.  The  seed  of  the  two  blue-grasses  is  so  near  alike  that 
only  a  seed  expert  can  tell  them  apart. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give- origin  and  history  of  timothy. 

2.  Why  is  little  timothy  grown  south  of  the  Ohio  River? 

3.  How  important  is  timothy  in  the  United  States? 

4.  Why  is  it  so  important? 

5.  How  does  the  legal  weight  of  timothy  seed  and  keeping  qualities  com- 

pare with  other  grasses? 

6.  State  the  rate  of  seeding. 

7.  Give  the  principal  method  of  seeding  timothy. 

8.  What  is  the  reason  for  sowing  timothy  alone? 


QUESTIONS  357 

9.  What  fertilizers  are  used  on  timothy  meadows? 

10.  What  is  the  effect  on  crop  following  the  timothy? 

11.  When  should  timothy  be  cut  for  hay?     Give  reasons. 

12.  Compare  feeding  value  of  timothy  and  clover. 

13.  Explain  how  timothy  lives  from  year  to  year. 

14.  How  long  does  it  live? 

15.  State  how  redtop  and  bent  grasses  differ,  and  in  what  respects  they  are 

similar. 

16.  When  introduced  into  the  United  States? 

17.  Compare  redtop  and  timothy  in  adaptations. 

18.  Where  is  redtop  most  important? 

19.  Where  is  seed  grown? 

20.  Does  it  form  a  good  sod?     Is  it  long  lived? 

21.  Does  it  make  good  pasture?     Good  hay? 

22.  When  should  it  be  cut  for  hay? 

23.  How  much  seed  is  sown  per  acre? 

24.  Compare  redtop  and  bent  grasses. 

25.  Why  is  orchard-grass  less  grown  than  timothy  and  redtop? 

26.  Where  did  timothy  and  orchard-grass  receive  their  first  culture? 

27.  Compare  the  climatic  relations  of  orchard-grass  and  timothy. 

28.  Where  has  orchard-grass  advantage  over  timothy? 

29.  What  are  its  disadvantages? 

30.  How  is  it  handled  in  pastures? 

31.  What  are  the  best  mixtures  with  orchard-grass  for  hay?     For  pasture? 

32.  What  particular  merit  does  orchard-grass  have  as  a  pasture  plant? 

33.  How   does    it   compare   with   timothy    for   early    spring   and    late    fall 

pasture  ? 

34.  Is  it  a  bunch  or  sod  grass? 

35.  Compare  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  Canadian  blue-grass  in  nroductive- 

ness,  appearance,  and  soil  adaptations. 

36.  Compare  blue-grass  and  timothy  as  to  soil  and  climatic  requirements. 

37.  Is  blue-grass  a  sod  or  a  bunch  grass? 

38.  Quick  or  slow  in  growing?     Long  or  short  lived? 

39.  For  what  purpose  is  it  best  adapted? 

40.  Is  the  seed  of  good  quality? 

41.  State  amount  required  to  sow  an  acre. 

42.  How  important  is  it  as  a  natural  pasture? 

43.  What  is  the  best  time  of  seeding? 

44.  Where  is  the  seed  crop  grown? 

45.  What  is  the  weight  per  bushel  ? 

46.  Where  is  Canada  blue-grass  found  most  useful? 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 
THE  SECONDARY  GRASSES 

BROME-GRASS 

BROME-GRASS,  also  called  awnless  brome-grass  and  Russian 
brome-grass  (Fig.  159),  is  a  native  of  the  great  upland  plains  of 
eastern  Europe,  notably  Hungary  and  Eussia.  While  it  has  been 
cultivated  in  Europe  for  perhaps  150  years,  it  was  introduced  into 
the  United  States  only  about  thirty  years  ago.  It  has  now  attained 
a  place,  though  not  a  very  important  grass,  in  the  western  part  of 
the  United  States. 

Characteristics. — Brome-grass*  is  a  long-lived,  very  persistent 
grass,  that  spreads  by  vigorous  underground  roots.  It  is  very 
drought-resistant,  and  therefore  adapted  to  the  great,  dry  plains 
west  of  the  timothy  region.  It,  however,  is  a  northern  grass  in 
climatic  relations,  and  has  not  given  very  promising  results  south  of 
the  Dakotas.  Through  the  Dakotas  and  into  Canada,  however,  it  is 
probably  the  best  cultivated  pasture  grass.  The  most  valuable 
quality  of  brome-grass  is  its  ability  to  grow  and  remain  succulent 
during  the  hot,  dry  weather  of  midsummer,  when  most  grasses  are 
dormant  or  dead.  Brome-grass  also  starts  growth  very  early  in  the 
spring,  and  continues  growth  late  in  the  fall.  One  of  the  principal 
disadvantages  is  the  tendency  to  become  sod-bound  after  two  or 
three  years.  Usually  it  will  not  produce  seed  stalks  for  more  than 
about  "two  years,  but  will  continue  to  make  good  pasture  for  many 
seasons. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — Brome-grass  yields  a  good  crop  of  seed  of 
high  vitality.  The  seed  grows  readily  and  no  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  securing  a  good  stand.  It  is  the  common  custom  to  sow  it  alone, 
either  in  the  fall  or  spring,  at  the  rate  of  twenty  pounds  of  seed 
per  acre. 

A  very  common  custom  among  the  farmers  that  grow  brome- 
grass  is  to  harvest  two  or  three  hay  or  seed  crops,  and  then  turn  the 
brome-grass  into  pasture  for  two  or  three  seasons,  after  which  it 
should  be  broken  up  and  put  into  cultivated  crops. 
358 


SEED  AND  SEEDING  359 

FIG.  159.  FlQ-  16°- 


FIG.  159. — Smooth  brome-grass. 
FiO.  160.— Tall  meadow  oat-grass. 


360  THE  SECONDARY  GRASSES 

As  brome-grass  becomes  sod-bound  in  about  two  or  three  years,  a 
number  of  methods  have  been  tried  to  overcome  this.  About  the 
most  successful  method  is  to  break  the  brome-grass,  very  shallow,  not 
over  two  inches  deep.  If  this  is  done  in  early  spring,  the  grass  will 
at  once  come  up  and  usually  produce  a  seed  crop  the  same  year. 

TALL   MEADOW   OAT-GRASS 

Origin  and  History. — Tall  meadow  oat-grass  (Fig.  160)  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  where  it  is  very  generally  included  in  all  mixtures 
of  meadow  and  pasture  grasses.  It  is  very  little  used  in  the  United 
States.  It  seems  to  be  fairly  well  adapted  to  the  southern  States 
and  when  better  known  will  probably  be  cultivated  much  more  than 
at  present.  . 

Climatic  Adaptations. — Tall  oat-grass  is  very  similar  to  or- 
chard-grass in  its  soil  and  climatic  adaptations,  except  it  will  not 
grow  on  wet  soils  or  in  shady  places. 

Characteristics. — Tall  oat-grass  is  a  typical  bunch  grass,  and 
forms  a  very  loose  sod.  If  sown  alone,  it  should  be  sown  very 
thickly.  It  is  not  well  adapted  to  sow  in  mixtures,  as  it  is  easily 
crowded  out  during  the  first  year.  For  that  reason,  when  grown  at 
all,  it  is  usually  grown  alone  or  in  some  cases  mixed  with  orchard- 
grass.  It  is  doubtful  whether  tall  oat-grass  fills  any  peculiar  place 
that  is  not  better  taken  by  some  other  grass. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — The  seed  is  produced  at  a  moderate  price, 
but  is  rather  low  in  vitality  and  takes  a  rather  heavy  seeding  to  in- 
sure a  full  stand.  Thirty  to  forty  pounds  per  acre  is  generally  sown. 
This  will  probably  limit  its  culture,  except  where  it  is  found  to  be 
superior  to  other  grasses. 

MEADOW   FESCUE 

Origin  and  History. — Meadow  fescue  (Fig.  161),  also  known 
as  English  blue-grass,  is  common  throughout  Europe  and  north 
Asia.  There  are  several  varieties,  but  only  two  are  in  commerce, 
generally  known  as  meadow  fescue  and  tall  fescue.  There  is,  how- 
ever, little  difference  in  appearance.  Meadow  fescue  has  been  culti- 
vated for  about  150  years  in  Europe,  and  has  from  time  to  time  been 
introduced  into  the  United  States,  but  mostly  during  the  past  forty 


PIG;  161. 


Fia.  162. 


FIG.  161, — Meadow  fescue  or  English  blue-graas. 
FIG.  162. — English  rye-grass. 


362  THE  SECONDARY  GRASSES 

years.  It  is  cultivated  principally  at  present  in  northeastern 
Kansas  and  western  Missouri. 

Adaptations. — Meadow  fescue  is,  in  general,  adapted  to  about 
the  same  climatic  and  soil  conditions  as  timothy.  However,  in  most 
of  the  timothy  regions  it  can  not  compete  with  timothy  as  either  a 
hay  or  pasture  grass,  and  has  no  especial  qualities  to  recommend 
it  above  timothy.  In  northeastern  Kansas  it  seems  to  be  somewhat 
more  drought-resistant  than  timothy,  and  has  been  found  there  to 
produce  an  excellent  crop  of  seed.  It  is  grown  in  this  region  very 
largely  for  the  seed  crop. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — Ordinarily  about  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds 
of  seed  per  acre  is  required.  It  is  generally  sown  alone,  either  in  the 
fall  or  spring,  but  fall  seeding  is  to  be  preferred.  It  should  be  sown 
rather  early,  and  will  then  give  a  fair  crop  of  either  seed  or  hay 
the  following  season. 

Meadow  fescue  is  frequently  used  in  grass  mixtures  for  pastures 
in  order  to  give  variety. 

Characteristics. — Meadow  fescue,  when  sown  thin,  has  a  ten- 
dency to  form  bunches,  but  will  make  a  fair  sod  when  sown  thickly. 
It  does  not  spread  by  underground  roots.  It  is  considered  a  long- 
lived  grass,  and  has  shown  considerable  ability  to  spread  spon- 
taneously, as  it  is  found  growing  wild  through  all  the  northern  part 
of  the  United  States.  In  hay  production  it  will  probably  yield 
about  as  much  as  timothy  when  at  its  best,  but  the  quality  of  the 
hay  is  not  as  good. 

RYE-GRASSES 

There  are  two  rye-grasses,  the  one  known  as  perenmal'or  English 
rye-grass  (Fig.  162),  and  the  other  as  Italian  or  annual  rye-grass. 
They  are  both  rather  short-lived  perennials,  but  the  Italian  rye-grass 
is  less  persistent  than  the /English  rye-grass.  Under  average  con- 
ditions in  north  Europe,  annual  rye-grass  will  live  one  year,  though 
some  plants  persist  for  two  years,  while  the  perennial  rye-grass  will 
live  only  two  to  three  years. 

Perennial  Rye-grass — Origin  and  History. — It  is  generally 
believed  that  perennial  rye-grass  was  the  first  grass  to  be  cultivated  to 
any  extent.  In  some  places  it  forms  natural  meadows  and  seeds 


SEED  AND  SEEDING  363 

abundantly,  so  that  seed  is  easily  collected.  It  has  probably  been 
cultivated  in  Europe  for  as  much  as  300  years.  It  is  found  growing 
naturally  in  temperate  Asia  and  southern  Europe.  It  has  been 
introduced  into  America  about  as  long  as  other  cultivated  grasses, 
but  so  far  has  not  attained  a  place  of  importance. 

Adaptations  and  Characteristics. — English  rye-grass  is  not 
adapted  either  to  very  cold  winters  or  hot  summers,  and  its  culture  is 
limited  mostly  to  regions  with  a  mild  winter  and  humid  climate.  It 
seems  rather  well  adapted  to  wet  soils,  and  it  is  sometimes  recom- 
mended in  pasture  mixtures  for  wet  land.  English  rye-grass  is  a 
very  vigorous  grower,  and  will  produce  a  good  growth  in  a  short  time. 
For  this  reason  it  has  been  used  a  great  deal  in  lawn  mixtures  to 
sow  with  blue-grass  or  bent  grass.  The  rye-grass  makes  a  good 
growth  the  first  season,  but  will  mostly  die  out  during  the  next  year 
and  give  way  to  the  better  lawn  grasses. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — Perennial  rye-grass  is  sown  either  in  the 
fall  or  spring  and  usually  without  a  nurse  crop.  Twenty  to  thirty 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  required.  Seed  is  not  very  expensive  and 
usually  has  a  high  per  cent  germination.  The  seed  is  practically  all 
produced  in  Europe  and  imported  to  this  country. 

Italian  Rye-grass — Origin  and  History. — Italian  rye-grass  or 
annual  rye-grass  is  found  growing  wild  throughout  southern  Europe, 
western  Asia  and  northern  Africa.  It  has  been  cultivated  for  at 
least  a  hundred  years,  and  has  come  to  be  recognized  as  a  very 
important  grass  in  Europe.  It  has  not  gained  importance  as  a 
cultivated  grass  in  America. 

Adaptation  and  Characteristics. — Italian  rye-grass  will  not 
withstand  cold  winters,  as  it  has  a  strong  tendency  to  be  annual, 
though  in  mild  climates  it  will  live  two  years.  It  is  a  very  strong, 
vigorous  grower,  and  if  sown  in  the  spring  will  make  a  fair  crop  of 
hay  the  first  season.  It  is  well  adapted  to  use  in  temporary  pastures 
from  the  Ohio  Eiver  southward.  It  will  usually  live  two  years  when 
kept  closely  pastured  down. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — The  seed  is  abundantly  produced,  of  good 
quality,  but  somewhat  more  expensive  than  timothy  or  redtop. 
From  thirty  to  forty  pounds  per  acre  is  required  for  a  full  seeding. 
It  is  sown  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring.  It  is  an  excellent  grass 


364  THE  SECONDARY  GRASSES 

to  sow  in  the  fall  with  red  clover,  as  they  both  develop  at  about  the 
same  rate  during  the  following  season.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
crop  to  mix  with  crimson  clover,  and  is  probably  -the  best  hay  grass 
we  have  for  this  purpose. 

Italian  rye-grass  is  well  adapted  to  grow  in  wet  meadows  or 
under  irrigation,  where  grass  is  wanted  for  only  one  or  two  seasons. 
Several  cuttings  can  be  made  in  a  season,  and  under  best  conditions 
very  large  yields  are  secured. 

Italian  rye-grass  is  also  used  in  lawn  mixtures  as  a  temporary 
grass  for  a  year  or  two,  while  blue-grass  is  establishing.  It  is  some- 
what shorter  lived  but  a  more  rapid  grower  than  the  English  or 
perennial  rye-grass. 

BERMUDA    GRASS 

Bermuda  grass  is  a  native  of  India.  It  was  introduced  into  this 
country  about  the  year  1800,  and  has  spread  throughout  the  whole 
southern  half  of  the  United  States.  It-is  the  most  valuable  pasture 
and  lawn  grass  in  the  cotton  belt,  taking  the  place  of  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  in  parts  of  the  South.  In  many  places  in  the  South  it  has  long 
been  regarded  as  a  bad  weed,  but  its  agricultural  value  is  gaining 
recognition,  and  it  is  frequently  sown  for  agricultural  purposes. 

Description. — Bermuda  grass  is  a  long-lived,  persistent  peren- 
nial that  spreads  by  strong  underground  root  stalks.  These  root 
stalks  may  be  the  size  of  a  lead-pencil  and  several  feet  in  length.  On 
hard  soil,  however,  the  root  stalks  may  be  above  ground,  as  stolons. 
Sometimes  both  the  above-ground  and  below-ground  root  stalks  are 
found  on  the  same  plant.  The  stems  arising  from  the  root  stalks 
are  usually  rather  short,  varying  from  four  to  eight  inches  on  poor 
soil,  or  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  on  good  soil.  Its  seed  production  is 
rather  low,  and  it  seems  to  produce  seed  only  in  hot,  dry  weather. 
The  business  of  collecting  the  seed  for  market  has  not  been  well  de- 
veloped. 

Climate  and  Soils. — Bermuda  grass  is  adapted  to  southern 
climates  only.  The  leaves  and  stems  are  easily  killed  by  frost,  and 
the  roots  below  ground  are  killed  in  regions  where  the  ground  freezes. 
It  ranges  as  far  northward  as  Washington,  D.  C.,  but  is  not  very 
persistent  at  that  latitude.  Bermuda  grass  will  withstand  great 


JOHNSON  GRASS  365 

summer  heat  in  the  bright  sun;  it  will  not  do  well  in  shade,  and 
succumbs  to  the  first  frost. 

It  is  so  persistent  that  it  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil,  but  of 
course  is  much  larger  and  more  vigorous  on  good  soil.  It  is  one  of 
the  best  soil  binding  grasses  known,  especially  for  sandy  soils.  While 
well  adapted  to  pasture  or  lawn  purposes,  it  is  often  too  short  for 
hay. 

Culture  and  Yield. — Seed  is  rather  expensive,  and  as  it  is  very 
small,  the  ground  should  be  thoroughly  prepared  and  well  packed 
before  it  is  sown.  About  five  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  required.  It 
should  usually  be  sown  alone,  as  it  is  easily  killed  out  by  shade.  The 
roots  of  Bermuda  grass  are  so  persistent  that  it  can  easily  be  dis- 
tributed by  scattering  the  sod.  The  general  custom  is  to  break  up 
sods  into  small  pieces  and  scatter  these  in  furrows  about  three  feet 
apart.  If  care  is  exercised,  a  cultivated  crop  can  be  grown  on  the 
same  land  the  first  year  while  the  Bermuda  grass  is  getting  a  start. 

When  cut  for  hay,  it  is  cut  about  three  times  during  the  season. 
The  yield  is  usually  not  large,  the  total  product  of  the  three  cuttings 
amounting  to  about  a  ton  or  a  ton  and  a  half  under  average 
conditions.  .. 

Mixtures  for  Bermuda  Grass. — Bermuda  grass  is  so  persistent 
that  no  other  forage  crop  can  usually  grow  with  it  during  the  sum- 
mer months.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  Japanese  clover  or 
lespedeza  will  succeed  with  it,  and  greatly  increase  the  summer 
pasture. 

Burr  clover  is  highly  recommended  to  mix  with  Bermuda  grass 
for  pasture.  Burr  clover  grows  during  the  fall  and  winter  months, 
producing  pasture  when  the  Bermuda  grass  is  dead.  The  burr  clover 
usually  reseeds  sufficiently  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  resow  it 
each  year.  It  has  also  been  found  advisable  to  sow  Italian  rye-grass 
with  Bermuda  in  the  fall.  This  makes  an  excellent  winter  pasture, 
but  dies  out  about  the  time  Bermuda  begins  to  grow  the  next  season. 

JOHNSON    GRASS 

Johnson  grass  is  a  large,  coarse-growing  grass  closely  related  to 
the  sorghums,  but  differs  in  being  more  slender  and  smaller  in  size, 
and  in  having  strong  perennial  underground  root  stalks.  It  was 


366  THE  SECONDARY  GRASSES 

introduced  into  South  Carolina  in  1830,  but  has  since  spread  by 
natural  means  throughout  the  whole  cotton  belt.  In  the  past  it  has 
generally  been  regarded  as  a  rather  pernicious  weed  and  has  very 
seldom  been  sown. 

Johnson  grass  is  regarded  as  a  perennial  about  as  far  north  as 
Virginia,  but  winter  kills  wherever  the  ground  freezes  severely. 
Johnson  grass  is  very  drought-resistant  and  is  so  persistent  that  it 
will  succeed  in  almost  any  soil. 

Culture. — Johnson  grass  is  usually  sown  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  to 
twenty  pounds  per  acre.  It  produces  a  rather  large  yield  for  two  or 
three  years,  after  which  it  becomes  sod  bound,  probably  due  to  the 
large  growth  of  underground  roots.  It  will  then  make  very  good 
pasture,  but  not  growth  enough  for  hay.  The  sod  can  be  very  easily 
renewed  by  plowing  up,  after  which  the  grass  will  quickly  come  up 
and  be  as  vigorous  as  it  was  before.  .In  renewing  Johnson  grass  it  is 
also  a  good  practice  to  fall  plow  the  land  and  sow  to  winter  oats. 
After  the  winter  oats  have  been  harvested,  the  Johnson  grass  will 
again  take  possession  of  the  land.  In  the  South  two  to  three 
cuttings  a  season  can  be  made.  The  yield  varies  from  one  to  two 
tons  at  each  cutting. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  eradicate  Johnson  grass  when  once 
established,  and  it  should  not  be  sown  where  it  is  not  desired  to  keep 
it  permanently  or  in  rotation  with  a  winter  grain  crop,  such  as  oats. 
However,  where  it  is  well  established,  it  will  pay  to  take  care  of  it, 
as  Johnson  grass  is  a  valuable  hay  and  pasture  plant  for  the  southern 
States. 

SOUDAN   GRASS 

Soudan  grass  is  very  similar  to  Johnson  grass,  except  that  it  is 
an  annual  and  without  strong  underground  root  stalks.  It  can  be 
sown  anywhere  without  fear  of  infesting  the  land.  Soudan  grass 
was  recently  introduced  from  Africa  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  It  is  believed  to  be  the  wild  form  of  culti- 
vated sorghum,  with  which  it  crosses  very  readily.  It  differs  from 
sorghum  in  being  fine-stemmed  and  in  stooling  very  freely,  so  that 
from  twenty  to  fifty  stems  may  come  from  a  single  seed. 

Soudan  grass,  like  mille.t,  makes  a  very  quick  growth  in  hot 


QUESTIONS  367 

weather  and  produces  a  somewhat  better  quality  of  hay.  It  is  very 
drought-resistant  and  adapted  to  the  same  general  region  as  the 
millets  and  sorghum,  and  will  also  probably  find  a  very  extensive 
culture  throughout  the  Southern  States.  Soudan  grass  is  two  or 
three  weeks  earlier  in  maturing  than  the  sorghums  and  therefore  can 
be  cultivated  much  farther  north,  but  it  is  not  as  early  as  some 
varieties  of  fox-tail  millet.  It  has  the  quality  of  springing  up  quickly 
from  the  roots  when  cut,  and  will  produce  from  two  to  three  cuttings 
in  the  southern  States.  For  hay  purposes  it  may  be  broadcasted  or 
drilled  at  the  rate  of  thirty  pounds  per  acre,  or  half  this  amount,  if 
grown  principally  for  the  seed.  Soudan  grass  may  also  be  cultivated 
in  rows,  spacing  the  rows  twenty-five  or  thirty  inches  apart  and  giving 
clean  culture.  Only  three  to  five  pounds  per  acre  of  seed  are  required 
for  planting  in  rows.  Soudan  grass  produces  seed  in  abundance, 
and,  it  is  believed,  will  soon  occupy  an  important  place  as  a  forage 
crop. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  the  origin  of  brome-grass. 

2.  Where  is  it  cultivated  in  the  United  States? 

3.  Describe  brome-grass  as  to  life  period,  root  system  and  climatic  adapta- 

tions. 

4.  What  do  you  consider  its  most  valuable  qualities? 

5.  What   is   meant  by   "sod   bound"? 

6.  How  is  this  difficulty  overcome? 

7.  Is  seed  cheap  and  easy  to  grow? 

8.  Where  is  tall  meadow  oat-grass  grown? 

9.  To  what  other  grass  is  it  similar? 

10.  Describe  its  characteristics. 

11.  What  amount  of  seed  is  used  per  acre? 

12.  Relate  the  origin  and  history  of  meadow  fescue. 

13.  Compare  it  with  timothy  as  a  forage  crop. 

14.  Where   is   it  grown? 

15.  State  amount  of  seed  sown  per  acre. 

1C.  Name  the   characteristics  of  meadow  fescue. 

17.  Name  and  compare  the  two  principal   rye-grasses. 

18.  How   long   has   perennial   rye-grass   been  grown? 

19.  Describe  its  climatic  adaptations.     Soil  adaptations. 

20.  What  quantity  of  seed  is  sown  per  acre  ? 

21.  How  important  is  Italian  rye-grass? 

22.  Describe  it  as  to  length  of  life,  cold  resistance,  vigor  of  growth. 

23.  Is  seed  expensive  or  cheap? 

24.  Explain  the  principal  uses  for  rye-grass. 

25.  Give  the  origin  and  introduction  of  Bermuda  grass. 

26.  Name    region    where  best   adapted. 

27.  Describe  Bermuda  grass  as  to  its  root  system,  persistence,  height  and 

other  important  characters. 

28.  State  its  natural  range  northward. 

29.  Adaptation  to  sun  and  shade.    Adaptation  to  soil. 


368  THE  SECONDARY  GFxASSES 

30.  How  is  a  stand  of  Bermuda  grass  secured? 

31.  With  what  plants  is  it  mixed  for  pasture  purposes? 

32.  Describe  Johnson  grass. 

33.  To  what  region  is  it  best  adapted? 

34.  Is  it  persistent? 

35.  What  are  its  principal  uses? 

36.  How  is  a  stand  secured? 

37.  State  objections  to  Johnson  grass. 

38.  How  may  it  be  rotated  with  oats? 

39.  Compare  Johnson  grass  and  Soudan  grass. 

40.  Name  region  where  Soudan  grass  is  best  suited  for  cultivation. 

41.  Give  methods  of  culture. 

42.  Why  do  we  expect  ita  culture  to  increase? 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
MILLETS 

THE  name  millet  is  applied  to  a  considerable  variety  of  plants, 
such  as  cultivated  forms  of  fox-tail  grasses,  barnyard  grass,  while  in 
India  the  common  varieties  of  sorghum  are  known  as  giant  millets. 
Practically  all  the  millets,  however,  are  coarse-growing  annual 
grasses,  bearing  a  large,  compact  seed  head  (Fig.  163) .  The  culture 
of  millets  is  very  ancient,  probably  as  early  as  the  culture  of  wheat. 
Millets  are  especially  adapted  to  primitive  agriculture,  as  they  can 
be  grown  with  little  or  no  preparation  of  the  soil,  and  show  some 
tendency  to  run  wild  where  they  do  well,  while  the  seed  heads  are 
easily  harvested  and  prepared  for  feed.  Up  to  quite  recent  time,  it 
is  probable  that  the  millets,  including  sorghum,  formed  the  most 
important  source  of  cereal  food  for  mankind,  but  in  most  countries 
millet  seeds  have  been  replaced  by  rice  and  wheat  as  human  food. 
Millet  and  sorghum  seeds,  however,  are  still  very  extensively  used  in 
India,  China,  and  North  Africa. 

Distribution. — In  the  United  States  the  millets  have  been  used 
principally  as  forage  crops.  The  culture  of  millet  as  a  forage  crop 
is  most  extensive  in  the  upper  part  of  the  great  plains,  from  Dakota 
to  Kansas,  while  from  Kansas  southward  sorghum  largely  takes  the 
place  of  millet  as  an  annual  forage  crop. 

The  development  of  these  two  annual  forage  crops  in  the  great 
plains  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  standard  hay  crops  of 
the  East,  timothy  and  clover,  do  very  poorly  in  the  great  plains.  In 
the  past,  prairie  hay  was  the  principal  hay  grass  of  the  great  plains. 
As  the  prairies  have  been  broken  up,  alfalfa  has  become  the  prin- 
cipal perennial  forage,  but  it  is  rather  expensive  to  secure  a  stand  of 
alfalfa  and  it  is  only  adapted  to  long  rotation  systems,  so  consider- 
able place  has  been  found  in  this  regipn  for  an  annual  forage  crop 
like  millet  and  sorghum. 

Kinds  of  Millet. — In  the  United  States  the  name  millet  is  ap- 
plied to  four  very  distinct  types  of  annual  grass :  ( 1 )  fox-tail  millet ; 
(2)  broom-corn  millet;  (3)  barnyard  millet;  and  (4)  pearl  millet. 

Fox-tail  millet  is  the  most  important  group,  and  constitutes  prob- 
24  369 


370 


MILLETS 


ably  90  per  cent  of  the  acreage  sown  (Fig.  164) .  The  fox-tail  millets 
are  all  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  wild,  weedy  grass  known  as 
green  fox-tail.  However,  under  cultivation  a  great  many  types  and 
varieties  have  been  developed.  Practically  every  gradation  is  to  be 
found  between  the  different  types,  but  for  convenience  they  are 
usually  classed  into  four  groups,  as  follows : 

1.  Hungarian    Grass   or 
Hungarian  Millet. — This  is  a 
rather  early  form,  maturing  in 
sixty  to  eighty  days.   The  heads 
are  rather  small,  usually  well 
covered    with    bristles.      The 
seeds  vary  from  yellow  to  black, 
and  both  colors  are  found  in 
the  same  head.     The  stems  are 
usually    fine    and    the    plant 
comparatively     leafy.       Hun- 
garian grass  is  considered  quite 
drought-resistant,  and  is  prob- 
ably better  adapted  to  soils  of 
medium  or  low  fertility  than 
the  other  millets.     It  averages 
about    twenty-five     to     thirty 
inches  in  height.     Hungarian 
grass  also  runs  wild  very  easily, 
and  this  is  sometimes  heard  as 
an  objection  to  its  culture. 

2.  Common  millet  is  a  name 
applied  to  several  varieties  of  millet  somewhat  taller  than  Hungarian 
grass,  maturing  at  about  the  same  time,  and  with  seeds  all  of  a 
light  yellow  color.     The  head  is  comparatively  slender,  and  when 
well  developed  usually  droops. 

3.  Siberian  millet  is  quite  similar  to  the  foregoing  varieties,  but 
the  seeds  are  a  bright  orange  color. 

4.  German  millet  is  much  taller  and  coarser  growing  and  two 
to  three  weeks  later  than  common  millet  (Fig.  165) .    The  heads  are 
large  and  rather  loose.     The  seeds  are  yellow,  but  slightly  smaller 


FIG.   163. — Millet  plants. 


RATE  OF  SOWING 


371 


than  the  seeds  of  common  millet.     German  millet  requires  a  richer 
soil  for  full  development  than  the  other  millets. 

Culture. — Millets  are  hot-weather  plants  and  are  rather  slow  in 
starting  if  sown  early  in  the  spring.  There 
is  danger  of  weeds  overcoming  early-sown 
millet.  Seeding  may  take  place  anywhere 
from  two  weeks  after  corn  planting  up  to 
within  sixty  to  eighty  days  of  frost.  For 
this  reason  millet  is  very  frequently  used 
as  a  catch  crop,  where  some  early-sown 
crop  has  failed.  From  Kansas  southward 
millet  may  be  sown  after  wheat  harvest, 
and  if  fall  rains  come  early  enough  a  fair 
crop  will  develop. 

Millet  is  quite  commonly  believed  to  be 
hard  on  the  land.  At  any  rate,  it  is  some- 
times observed  that  small  grains  following 
millet  are  less  productive  than  on  adjacent 
lands  where  other  crops  have  been 
grown.  Ordinarily  this  effect  is  not  so 
noticeable  in  a  cultivated  crop  like  corn. 
After  a  year  or  two,  the  effect  seems  to 
disappear.  No  one  has  given  an  ade- 
quate explanation  of  this  phenomenon. 
It  is  not  believed  that  millet  actually 
takes  more  plant  food  from  the  soil,  but 
as  it  is  a  very  vigorous  growing,  shallow- 
rooted  plant,  it  is  thought  by  some  to  more 
thoroughly  exhaust  the  available  supply  in 
the  upper  layers  than  most  of  the  com- 
mon crops.  The  theory  has  also  been  ad- 
vanced that  it  may  leave  some  toxic  sub- 
stance in  the  soil,  but  this  has  never  been 
demonstrated.  At  any  rate,  the  injurious  effect  is  usually  small 
and  temporary,  and  seldom  deters  farmers  from  sowing  the  crop. 

Rate  of  Sowing. — For  a  hay  crop,  from  thirty  to  sixty  pounds 
of  seed  are  sown  per  acre,  and  for- a  seed  crop  about  half  of  this 


164. — Common  millet. 


372  MILLETS 

amount.     Usually  the  thinner  seeding  is  put  on  heavy,  fertile  soil. 

Feeding  Value. — Millet  is  very  easily  cured  into  hay  of  good 
quality.  Millet  hay  has  a  loosening  effect  on  the  digestive  tract  of 
horses,  and  also  when  horses  are  heavily  fed  with  it  for  a  long  time 
without  change  it  is  very  apt  to  cause  slight  swelling  and  inflamma- 
tion of  the  joints.  Where  fed  only  part  time,  or  mixed  with  other 
roughage,  it  is  not  thought  to  be  injurious.  Millet  is  not  reported 
as  injurious  to  cattle  or  sheep. 

Japanese  barnyard  millet  (Fig.  166)  is  also  known  as  "  Ankee  " 
grass  in  India.  It  is  closely  related  to  the  common  barnyard  grass 
found  everywhere  in  North  America,  but  the  cultivated  form  is 
somewhat  more  erect  and  was  brought  to  this  country  from  Japan. 

Adaptations. — Barnyard  millet  is  especially  adapted  to  culture 
on  wet  lands.  The  wild  form  is  found  growing  very  rank  along 
the  irrigation  districts  in  the  western  States,  while  on  lowlands, 
subject  to  overflow,  wild  barnyard  grass  is  often  found  growing  to 
the  exclusion  of  almost  all  other  vegetation.  It  is  not  suited  to 
cultivation  in  dry  or  unproductive  soils. 

The  hay  is  rather  coarse  and  not  of  first  quality,  but  no  injurious 
effect  has  ever  been  reported  from  feeding  it.  One  to  two  pecks  of 
seed  are  sown  per  acre  and  should  not  be  sown  till  warm  weather  has 
arrived.  An  average  yield  is  two  to  three  tons  per  acre,  but  on  rich, 
wet  lands  yields  of  four  to  six  tons  are  sometimes  harvested. 

Broom-corn  millet  is  so  called  from  its  rather  loose,  spreading 
head.  This  is  the  true  millet  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  is  very  ex- 
tensively grown  for  human  food  in  India.  Under  average  conditions 
it  is  less  productive  of  forage,  but  probably  a  heavier  seed  producer 
than  other  millets. 

In  North  America  it  is  best  adapted  to  the  northern  part  of  the 
great  plains,  especially  at  the  higher  elevations  in  Montana  and  the 
western  part  of  the  Dakotas.  It  seldom  does  well  from  Nebraska 
southward.  Broom-corn  millet  is  usually  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  to 
four  pecks  per  acre. 

Pearl  millet,  also  called  penicillaria,  is  not  at  all  like  the  other 
millets  in  appearance  or  habit  of  growth.  It  is  a  tall,  coarse-grow- 
ing plant,  reaching  a  height  of  ten  to  twelve  feet.  Usually  it  stools 
a  great  deal,  producing  up  to  ten  or  twelve  stems  from  a  single  seed. 


MILLETS 


373 


FIG.  165. — German  millet. 
FIG.  166. — Japanese  millet. 


374  MILLETS 

Pearl  millet  matures  as  far  north  as  South  Dakota.  When  cut  down 
it  springs  up  readily  from  the  roots,  and  in  the  southern  States  may 
be  cut  two  to  three  times  a  season.  While  it  makes  a  very  large  yield, 
the  forage  is  of  little  value,  as  it  is  too  coarse  and  woody  to  feed 
animals  as  a  regular  ration. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  kind  of  plants  are  included  under  the  name  millet? 

2.  How  important  have  millets  been  in  the  past? 

3.  How  important  are  they  at  present? 

4.  Give   the    principal  uses   of   millet. 

5.  Where  are  they  grown  in  the  United  States? 

6.  Why  has  millet  and  sorghum  culture  developed  in  this  region? 

7.  Name  the  four  different  kinds  of  millet. 

8.  Describe  and  compare  the  four  principal  kinds  of  fox-tail  millet. 

9.  Describe  the  culture  of  millet. 

10.  Give  effect  of  millet  on  productivity  of  the  soil. 

11.  What  is  the  explanation  for  this  effect? 

12.  Give  the  feeding  value  of  millets. 

13.  Describe   Japanese   barnyard   millet. 

14.  Give  its  soil  adaptations.     Quality  of  the  hay. 

15.  Describe  broom-corn  millet.     Where  is  it  grown? 

16.  Describe  pearl  millet. 


CHAPTER  XL 
LEGUMES 

THE  botanical  family,  Leguminosaa,  comprises  some  10,000 
species.  The  distinguishing  feature  is  that  the  seeds  are  borne  in  a 
pod  or  legume.  The  family  as  a  whole  is  mostly  found  in  the 
tropics,  but  at  least  some  species  are  found  in  practically  all  parts  of 
the  globe  where  plants  grow.  About  one-fourth  of  the  Leguminosae 
are  large  trees,  such  as  the  honey  locust  or  coffee  tree.  The  rest  are 
shrubs  or  herbaceous  plants. 

The  family  is  divided  into  three  groups,  one  of  which  is  known 
as  the  Papilionacece  or  pea  family.  The  Latin  name  comes  from 
papilio,  meaning  a  butterfly,  because  the  flowers  somewhat  resemble 
a  butterfly  in  appearance.  Practically  all  the  legumes  grown  for 
forage  belong  to  this  group,  and  most  of  the  legumes  discussed  in 
agricultural  literature  belong  to  the  pea  family.  In  some  cases,  as 
the  clovers,  the  legume  or  pod  is  so  modified  that  it  would  hardly  be 
recognized  as  related  to  peas,  but  the  flowers  of  practically  all  the 
pea  family  are  similar  and  easily  recognized.  The  principal  genera 
of  legumes  cultivated  as  forage  crops  are  the  following  twelve : 

1.  Trifolium  or  Clover  Group.— There  are  in  the  world  about 
250  species  in  the  clover  family,  sixty-five  found  in  North  America. 
Hunt 1  names  thirty  species  which  have  at  least  been  tested  experi- 
mentally.    Only  a  half-dozen  have  attained  importance. 

Trifolium  pratense,  medium  red  clover. 
Trifolium  perenne,  mammoth  red  clover. 
Trifolium  Jiylridum,  alsike  clover. 
Trifolium  repens,  white  clover. 
Trifolium  incarnatum,  crimson  clover. 
Trifolium  Alexandrium,  berseem. 

2.  Medicago  or  Alfalfa  Group.— There  are  some  fifty  species 
in  this  family,  several  sown  for  forage,  and  several  others,  as  the  burr 
clovers,  that  have  considerable  value  as  wild  plants. 

1 "  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops,"  p.  140. 

375 


376  LEGUMES 

Medicago  saliva,  common  alfalfa. 

Medicago  media,  sand  lucern. 

Medica  fulcala,  yellow  or  sickle  alfalfa. 

Medicago  denticulata,  burr  clover  (several  species). 

Medicago  lupulina,  black  medic. 

3.  Phaseolus,  or  Bean  Group. — This  group  contains  a  number 
>f  species,  the  most  important  being  the  common  field  bean  and  lima 
bean.     The  field  beans,  however,  are  classed  as  kidney,  marrow, 
medium,  and  pea  beans,  according  to  shape  and  size  of  seed. 

Phaseolus  vulgaris,  common  kidney  bean. 
Phaseolus  angularis,  adzuki  bean. 
Phaseolus  aureus,  mung  bean. 

4.  Pisum  arvense,  or  pea  group,  is  sometimes  divided  into  field 
peas  and  garden  peas,  though  the  real  difference  between  the  two  is 
slight. 

5.  Vigna  sinensis,  or  cow  peas. 

6.  Soja  max  (old  name  Glycine  soja'},  or  soy  bean  family. 

7.  Vicia,  or  vetches,  include  cultivated  species  and  many  wild 
forms. 

Vicia  saliva,  tares  or  common  spring  vetch. 
Vicia  villosa,  sand  or  hairy  vetch. 
Vicia  faba,  horse  bean  or  Windsor  bean. 

8.  Melilotus,  or  Sweet  Clover. — Several  species  have  agricul- 
tural value,  but  only  three  are  generally  known. 

Melilotus  alba,  white  sweet  clover. 

Melilotus  offidnalis,  large  yellow  sweet  clover. 

Melilotus  indica,  small  yellow  annual. 

9.  Lespedeza  striata,  or  Japan  clover. 

10.  Desmodium  tortuosum,  or  Florida  beggar  weed.     Several 
similar  wild  species  widely  distributed. 

11.  Stizolobiun  deeringiarrum,  or  Florida  velvet  bean. 

12.  Lupinus,   including  several  species,  as  albus,  luteus,  and 
angustifolius. 

There  are  several  other  families  of  legumes  that  have  a  certain 
agricultural  value,  but  do  not  as  yet  have  regular  cultivation. 


COMPOSITION  OF  LEGUMES  AND  GRASSES  377 

COMPARISON   OF   LEGUMES  AND   GRASSES 

Roots. — It  is  frequently  stated  that  legumes  are  deeper-rooted 
plants  than  the  grasses.  It  is  a  difficult  point  to  determine,  as  it  is 
not  a  simple  matter  to  separate  roots  from  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  sev- 
eral feet.  The  character  of  the  soil,  age  of  plants,  and  other  factors 
so  modify  the  depth  and  distribution  of  roots  that  data  taken  at 
different  places  or  at  various  times  are  not  comparable. 

Data  on  depth  and  amount  of  roots'  have  been  taken  at  Con- 
necticut, Utah,  Arkansas,  North  Dakota,  Kansas,  Minnesota,  and 
other  places.  In  general,  with  both  grasses  and  clovers,  from  eighty- 
five  to  ninety  per  cent  of  the  roots  bv  weight  have  been  found  in  the 
upper  six  inches.  Alfalfa  should  be  excepted,  as  it  is  a  very  deep- 
rooted  plant.  Red  clover  is  also  a  strong-rooted  plant,  penetrating 
from  four  to  six  feet,  while  white  clover  is  believed  to  root  about  one- 
half  as  deeply. 

Grasses  also  vary,  brome-grass  and  orchard-grass  penetrating 
five  to  six  feet  in  pervious  soils;  timothy  generally  three  to  four 
feet,  blue-grass  usually  less  than  three  feet.  Soils  also  have  a  marked 
effect,  the  quantity  of  root  being  much  greater  in  the  subsoil  when 
loose  soils  are  compared  with  hard,  impervious  soils. 

Timothy  and  red  clover  are  very  generally  grown  in  mixture,  and 
it  is  probably  true  in  this  case  that  the  red  clover  has  a  more 
abundant  root  system  below  the  upper  twelve  inches  than  the 
timothy.  There  is  also  evidence  that  as  grass  sods  get  old  and  well 
matted  the  roots  become  quite  shallow  (see  p.  296),  while  in  the  case 
of  long-lived  legumes  the  deep  tap  roots  probably  increase  in  size. 

The  total  amount  of  root  material  is  of  interest  as  indicating  the 
residue  of  organic  matter  left  in  the  soil.  Data  on  red  clover  and 
alfalfa,  taken  at  various  places,  have  shown  variations  ranging  from 
1000  to  5000  pounds  per  acre,  with  most  cases  nearer  the  lower  figure. 
The  proportion  of  root  to  top  is  usually  about  1 :  1.5  or  1 :  2.  The 
data,  however,  can  not  be  considered  very  reliable  or  constant. 

Composition  of  Legumes  and  Grasses. — The  following  table 
of  certain  analyses  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  relative  composition  of 
both  the  forage  and  seeds  of  legume  and  grass  crops : 


378 


LEGUMES 


Crop 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Crude  fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 

Fat 

Forage: 
Timothy  hay. 
Alfalfa  hay... 

13.2 

8.4 

Per  cent 

4.4 
74 

Per  cent 

5.9 
14-3 

Per  cent 

29 
25 

Per  cent 
45. 

42.7 

Per  cent 

2.5 
2.2 

Grain: 
Maize  

10.9 

1.5 

10.5 

2.1 

69.6 

5  4 

Beans  

15.0 

3.1 

904 

3.2 

56.7 

1.6 

Soy  beans.  .  . 

10.8 

4.7 

-  34.0 

4.8 

28.8 

16.9 

The  legume  forage  and  seeds  are  very  high  in  protein  content. 
The  seeds  of  grass  plants  (maize)  are  high  in  starch.  Certain 
legumes  store  considerable  oil,  as  illustrated  by  the  soy  bean.  The 
seed  of  grasses  has  a  large  endosperm,,  usually  rich  in  starch,  and  a 
small  embryo,  while  in  legume  seeds  there  is  no  endosperm,  but  the 
seed  is  filled  with  embryo.  The  composition  of  legume  seeds  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  embryo  of  grass  seeds. 

Effect  of  Legumes  and  Grass  on  Fertility  of  Soil. — It  has 
already  been  pointed  out  in  Chapter  V,  on  Eotation  of  Crops,  that 
both  grass  and  legumes,  in  a  rotation  with  grain  crops,  help  to  main- 
tain productivity  as  compared  with  grain  alone.  Rotation,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  permanent  means  of  restoring  productivity,  as  both 
grass  and  legumes  exhaust  the  mineral  supplies  of  the  soil.  In  one 
important  respect  they  differ,  and  that  is  the  effect  on  nitrogen 
supply  of  the  soil.  Legumes  acquire  free  nitrogen  from  the  air,  and 
it  is  fair  to  suppose  that  they  do  not  exhaust  this  element,  the  most 
costly  of  all,  from  the  soil. 

The  principal  method  of  determining  this  point  in  field  tests  is 
to  grow  crops  of  legumes  and  make  occasional  soils  analysis,  or  to 
grow  legumes,  alternating  with  grain  crops,  noting  the  general  vigor 
and  appearance  of s  the  crops.  In  certain  rotation  experiments, 
where  red  clover  has  been  grown  one  year  in  three  or  four,  the 
nitrogen  supply  of  the  soil  has  been  maintained,  although  the  grain 
crops  would  remove  large  amounts. 

One  way  of  comparing  the  relative  exhaustive  effect  of  legumes 
and  grasses  is  to  evaluate  the  important  fertilizing  constituents. 


HOW  LEGUMES  TAKE  NITROGEN 


379 


Value  of  Nitrogen,  Phosphate,  and  Potash  in  One  Ton  of  Timothy  Compared 
With  One  Ton  of  Clover 


Crop 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
acid 

Potash 

Total 
value 

Timothy: 
Pounds  of  

25 
$5.00 

41 

$8.20 

11 

$0.44 

7.6 
$0.30 

18 

$0.90 

44 
$2.20 

$6.30 

$10.70 
8.20 

Value  of     .        

Red  clover: 
Pounds  of 

Value  of 

Less  value  of  nitrogen 

Net  exhaustive  effect  of  clover  when  i 

enaoved 

$2.50 

If  clover  takes  from  the  air  as  much  nitrogen  as  the  crop  re- 
moves, leaving  the  'soil  as  well  supplied  as  before,  we  may  then  sub- 
tract the  cost  of  nitrogen^  in  estimating  the  exhaustive  effect  on  the 
soil.  If  the  clover  is  plowed  under  it  adds  materially  to  the  nitrogen 
supply. 

Time  of  Harvesting  Grasses  and  Legumes. —  As  pointed  out 
before,  grasses  continue  to  increase  in  total  dry  weight  up  to  the 
time  that  the  seeds  reach  the  hard  dough  stage.  In  general,  grasses 
increase  about  one-fourth  in  dry  weight  after  blossoming,  while 
clovers  reach  maximum  weight  about  time  of  full  bloom.  After 
this  legumes  decline  in  total  weight,  probably  due  to  the  loss  of 
leaves.  This  should  be  considered  in  determining  the  best  time  to 
harvest. 

Summing  up,  we  find  that  legumes  have  a  quite  different  root 
system  than  grasses  and  at  least  some  of  them  probably  draw  more 
heavily  on  trie  subsoil.  They  differ  in  composition,  legumes  being 
higher  in  protein.  Legumes  do  not  exhaust  the  soil  nitrogen,  though 
they  draw  more  heavily  on  the  potash  supply.  Legumes  reach 
maximum  growth  at  full  bloom,  while  grasses  increase  one-fourth 
after  this  period. 

HOW    LEGUMES    TAKE    NITROGEN    FROM    AIR 

During  the  Koman  period  it  was  'known  that  legumes  were 
beneficial  to  the  soil.  Jethro  Tull,  a  prominent  English  agricul- 
turist, made  frequent  references  to  the  value  of  legumes  as  soil 
improvers  in  his  writings,  1700-1725.  Certain  facts  about  clover 


380  LEGUMES 

were  well  known  to  these  early  writers,  as  (1)  clover  needs  a  lime- 
stone soil ;  (2)  that  land  may  become  "  clover  sick  " ;  (3)  and  that 
it  increased  production  of  the  soil. 

Several  theories  were  advanced  as  to  why  clover  improved  the 
soil.  Some  thought  it  to  be  deeper  rooted.  Liebig  (1840-1850), 
a  German  chemist,  thought  all  plants  took  nitrogen  from  the  air 
through  the  leaves,  and  legumes,  owing  to  the  broader  leaves,  took  up 
much  more  than  grasses. 

From  this  time  on  various  scientists  investigated  the  problem, 
but  it  was  not  until  1886  that  Hellriegel,  another  German  chemist, 
was  able  to  explain  the  matter.  Among  his  later  experiments  the 
following  may  be  noted : 

When  he  planted  peas  in  pots  filled  with  sterile  soil,  they  would 
germinate,  grow  a  short  time,  and  die,  though  occasionally  one  would 
live  and  do  well.  He  then  took  forty  pots  and  filled  them  with  ster- 
ilized soil,  but  ten  of  these  he  wet  with  leachings  from  a  fertile  soil. 
In  these  ten  pots  the  peas  did  well,  but  twenty-eight  out  of  the  thirty 
remaining  died.  On  the  plants  that  lived  he  found  root  nodules. 
He  concluded  that  the  nodules  were  necessary  for  growth.  As  it  had 
earlier  been  proved  that  these  nodules  contained  bacteria,  it  was  soon 
established  that  the  bacteria  caused  the  nodules,  and  that  it  was 
through  the  agency  of  these  bacteria  that  nitrogen  was  taken  from 
the  air. 

The  bacteria  are  minute,  rod-shaped  bodies  called  Bacillus 
radicicola.  They  may  live  in  the  soil  for  many  years.  When  the 
bacteria  come  in  contact  with  a  legume  root,  they  enter  the  root  hairs. 
This  irritation  causes  the  growth  of  a  nodule,  enclosing  the  bacteria, 
which  multiply  rapidly.  The  bacteria  take  up  nitrogen  from  the  air 
and  supply  it  to  the  plant,  while  the  plant  furnishes  other  food  matter 
for  the  bacteria.  The  plant  and  bacteria  are,  therefore,  mutually 
helpful  to  each  other,  and  this  relation  is  called  symbiosis. 

Forms  for  Different  Legumes. — While  the  same  species  of 
bacteria  is  apparently  found  on  all  legumes,  yet  there  is  some  slight 
difference  in  the  forms,  as  the  bacteria  for  one  kind  of  legume  will 
not  inoculate  another  variety  of  legume  except  in  a  few  cases.  Clover 
is  not  benefited  by  the  bacteria  from  peas  or  alfalfa.  However, 
alfalfa,  sweet  clover,  and  burr  clover  do  have  the  same  form,  and 


NEED  OF  INOCULATION  381 

bacteria  from  one  of  these  plants  may  inoculate  the  other.  At  pres- 
ent no  other  case  is  known  of  cross-inoculation. 

How  to  Inoculate. — When  the  value  of  inoculation  was  first 
discovered  (1887),  the  method  recommended  was  to  take  soil  from 
a  field  where  the  particular  plant  was  known  to  grow  well  and  spread 
it  over  the  new  field.  The  soil  from  the  old  field  should  be  taken 
from  the  upper  six  inches  and  transferred,  without  permitting  it  to 
dry  out,  to  the  new  field.  From  200  to  300  pounds  per  acre  is  suf- 
ficient if  carefully  applied.  As  sunshine  is  a  strong  bactericide,  it 
is  best  to  apply  on  a  cloudy  day  or  toward  evening  and  immediately 
harrow  in. 

Artificial  cultures  are  made  by  growing  the  bacteria  in  a  culture 
solution,  and  applying  these  pure  cultures  to  the  seed  just  before 
sowing  or  to  the  soil.  The  first  artificial  cultures  were  made  about 
1896,  but  for  many  years  were  unsatisfactory,  and  the  soil  method  of 
inoculation  was  best  up  to  recently.  New  methods  of  handling  arti- 
ficial cultures  have  been  developed  and  they  are  now  quite  satisfac- 
tory. Full  directions  for  using  the  cultures  are  usually  furnished 
with  each  kind. 

Natural  inoculation  is  sometimes  secured  through  bacteria 
which  adhere  to  the  seeds.  This  is  more  common  with  rough-coated 
seeds  like  sweet  clover  in  the  hull  or  burr  clover.  It  has  frequently 
been  observed,  in  sowing  alfalfa  on  a  new  field,  that  only  an  occasional 
plant  would  survive  the  first  season.  Examination  usually  shows 
those  occasional  plants  to  have  nodules,  probably  from  bacteria  on 
the  seed.  If  such  a  field  is  replowed,  harrowed  to  scatter  the 
bacteria  and  sown  a  second  time,  usually  thorough  inoculation  is 
secured. 

Need  of  Inoculation. — Some  legumes  have  greater  need  of  in- 
oculation than  others.  When  alfalfa  or  red  clover  is  sown  on  fields 
where  there  are  no  bacteria,  the  plants  usually  live  for  three  or  four 
months,  then  begin  to  die.  Soy  beans  and  cow  peas,  while  greatly 
benefited  by  bacteria,  will  do  very  well  on  good  soils  when  there  is 
no  evidence  of  nodules  on  the  roots.  Field  peas,  vetch,  white  clover, 
and  alsike  clover  are  all  grown  with  little  difficulty  on  good  soils, 
without  inoculation.  However,  the  bacteria  are  beneficial  in  most 
cases.  If  no  bacteria  are  present  the  legume  exhausts  the  nitrogen 
supply  of  the  soil  the  same  as  other  plants. 


3S2 


LEGUMES 


SOILS   FOR   LEGUMES 

Certain  legumes  are  well  known  as  crops  that  can  be  grown  on 
poor  soils,  as  field  beans  and  cow  peas,  the  old  adage  "  too  poor  to 
eprout  black-eye  peas  "  being  the  last  word  on  poor  soil.  Other 
legumes  require  good  soils,  notably  alfalfa,  which  seldom  succeeds 


FIG.  167. — Plot  on  right  had  lime  applied,  on  left  no  lime.    Note  difference  in  amount  and 

growth  of  red  clover. 

except  on  good,  productive  soils.     The  common  legumes  may  be 
roughly  grouped  as  follows : 

1.  Legumes  that  will  grow  on  poor  soils :   Beans,  field  peas,  cow 
peas,  alsike  clover,  lespedeza,  burr  clover. 

2.  Legumes  requiring  better  soils:   Red  clover,  sweet  clover, 
vetches,  white  clover,  soy  beans. 


QUESTIONS  383 

3.  Legume  that  grows  well  only  on  good  soils :  Alfalfa. 

Lime  Requirements  of  Legumes. — Certain  of  our  most  im- 
portant legumes  require  a  good  supply  of  lime  in  the  soil,  notably 
alfalfa  and  red  clover.  Many  are  indifferent  to  lime  and  others 
prefer  an  acid  soil.  The  matter  has  never  been  clearly  worked  out, 
and  available  data  are  conflicting,  but  the  common  legumes  may  be 
roughly  grouped : 

1.  High  in  lime  requirements :  Alfalfa,  red  clover,  sweet  clover. 

2.  Low  in  lime  or  slightly  deficient  in  lime:    Field  beans,  soy 
beans,  vetches,  peas,  white  clover,  alsike  clover. 

3.  Soil  may  be  very  deficient:    Cow  peas,  lespedeza  or  Japan 
clover,  burr  clover. 

4.  Prefer  acid  soils :  Florida  beggar  weed  and  velvet  bean. 

It  is  not  intended  to  mean  that  the  plants  actually  prefer  the  con- 
ditions indicated  in  each  group,  but  will  do  fairly  well  in  such  con- 
dition. For  example,  alsike  clover  responds  to  lime  and  prefers  a 
limestone  soil  (Fig.  167) ,  but  yet  will  grow  fairly  well  on  soil  lacking 
in  lime,  where  red  clover  will  fail. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  important  facts  about  the  legume  family. 

2.  How  is  the  pea  family  separated  from  the  rest? 

3.  From  what  does  it  derive  its  name,  legume? 

4.  Describe  the  clover  family. 

5.  The  alfalfa  family. 

(j.  How  many  important  families  of  legumes  are  grown  for  forage? 

7.  Name  as  many  as  you  can. 

8.  Compare  legumes  and  grasses  in  depth  and  amount  of  root. 

9.  What  per  cent  of  root  in  the  surface  six  or  eight  inches? 

10.  Compare  the  root  system  of  timothy  and  red  clover. 

11.  What  proportion  of  the  plant  is   root? 

12.  Compare  legumes  and  grasses  in  chemical  composition. 

13.  Compare  legumes  and  grasses  with  grain  crops  as  to  effect  on  produc- 

tivity of  soil. 

14.  Compare  legumes  and  grasses  as  to  effect  on  soil  exhaustion. 

15.  Compare  legumes  and  grasses  as  to  time  of  harvesting  for  maximum 

yield  for  best  quality. 

16.  How  long  has  the  value  of  legumes  been  known? 

17.  Early  theories  as  to  why  they  were  valuable. 

1  O        TTtTl  J.V.  i.          £     J.1        •  1  T  in 

18.  When  was  the  secret  of  their  value  discovered? 

19.  By  what  means  do  they  acquire  nitrogen  from  the  air? 

20.  Do  all   legumes  have  the  same  bacteria? 

21.  Tell  how  to  inoculate  with  soil.     With  artificial  culture. 

22.  What  is  natural  inoculation  ? 

23.  Is  inoculation  equally  important  for  all  legumes? 

24.  State  the  variation  of  legumes  as  to  soil  requirements;  as  to  lime  re- 

quirements. 


CHAPTER  XLI 
ALFALFA 

ALFALFA  is  at  present  the  most  important  cultivated  forage  crop 
in  the  west  half  of  the  United  States.  As  a  leguminous  crop,  it  has 
about  the  same  relation  to  the  western  half  of  the  United  States 
that  red  clover  does  north  of  the  Ohio  Eiver  and  the  cow  pea  crop 
south  of  the  Ohio  River.  While  its  culture  is  increasing  in  the 
eastern  half  of  the  United  States,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  will  ever 
attain  an  extensive  culture. 

Origin  and  History. — Alfalfa  is  probably  the  oldest  cultivated 
forage  crop.  Its  culture  seems  to  have  originated  in  Persia  and  Asia 
Minor.  Wild  forms  similar  to  the  cultivated  variety  are  found 
growing  in  this  region.  Here  it  was  cultivated  at  least  five  hundred 
years  B.C.  and  not  long  afterwards  introduced  into  Greece  during  one 
of  the  early  Persian  invasions.  It  seems  to  have  reached  the  Roman 
Empire  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  and  slowly  spread 
from  there  northward  through  Europe,  reaching  England  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  It  was  early  introduced  into  North  America 
and  South  America.  It  is  mentioned  occasionally  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  colonies,  and  has  been  in  continuous  culture  about  Syra- 
cuse, New  York,  for  at  least  a  hundred  years.  Its  agricultural 
history  in  the  United  States,  however,  really  begins  with  its  introduc- 
tion into  southern  California  from  South  America  in  1854.  The 
culture  of  alfalfa  spread  eastward,  especially  in  the  irrigated  dis- 
tricts. The  crop  had  a  very  rapid  development  in  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  (Fig.  168)  during  the  decade  from  1890  to  1900.  This 
was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  native  prairie  hay  had  largely 
disappeared  by  that  time,  and  no  other  cultivated  forage  plant  was 
found  to  succeed  so  well  as  alfalfa.  Since  1900,  considerable  effort 
has  been  made  to  spread  its  culture  east  of  the  Missouri  River,  but 
here  it  must  come  into  competition  with  timothy  and  clover,  which 
are  easier  to  grow  and  better  adapted  to  rotation.  Also,  the  soils  are 
not  naturally  well  suited  for  alfalfa  culture  without  special  treat- 
ment and  inoculation.  Its  development  has  therefore  been  slow, 
but  in  time  will  probably  attain  a  more  important  place. 
384 


CLIMATIC  REQUIREMENTS 


385 


Climatic  Requirements.-r-Alfalfa  originated  in  a  region  with 
an  extremely  hot  dry  climate.  It  seems  to  flourish  in  a  hot  climate 
if  it  is  also  dry,,  but  will  not  withstand  a  hot  humid  climate.  The 
common  cultivated  forms  are  limited  in  their  northern  extension  by 
winter  killing.  In  general  the  northern  limit  of  common  alfalfa  is 
through  South  Dakota  to  central  New  York.  However,  there  is  great 
variation  in  the  winter  resistance  of  different  strains.  This  is  well 


FIQ.   168. — Distribution  of  alfalfa  in  United  States.     (From  U.  S.  Census,  1910.) 

illustrated  by  very  extensive  experiments  conducted  at  Dickson, 
North  Dakota,  in  the  years  1908-1909.  The  following  data  are 
selected  to  illustrate  the  difference  in  hardiness : 

Hardiness  of  Alfalfa 

Source  of  seed  per  cent  surviving 

4  strains  from  Arabia 00.00 

5  strains  from  South  America 00.40 

5  strains  from  Germany 16.90 

3  strains  from  Nebraska 23.60 

12  strains  from  Turkestan 27.70 

3  strains  from  Montana 34.60 

2  strains  from  Canada 54.60 

3  strains  from  Mongolia 66.50 

1  strain  Grimm  alfalfa    (Minn.)    93.'00 

1  strain  Grimm  alfalfa   (Dakota)    97.20 

25 


386  ALFALFA 

There  are  many  varieties  of  alfalfa  besides  the  common  culti- 
vated form,  and  some  of  these  are  semi-tropical  in  character  and  not 
hardy  north  of  the  southern  part  of  Arizona  or  Texas.  One  species 
of  alfalfa,  known  as  Siberian  or  sickle  alfalfa,  is  found  growing  wild 
as  far  north  as  60°  latitude  in  Siberia.  The  relative  hardiness  of  the 
different  types  is  better  understood  by  considering  the  alfalfas  when 
classified  into  natural  groups. 

Classification  of  Alfalfa. — The  following  grouping  of  the  com- 
mon cultivated  varieties  is  arranged  according  to  degree  of  hardiness : 

Semitropical  forms :  Peruvian,  Arabian. 

Blue-flowered  alfalfa :   Common,  Turkestan. 

Variegated  flowers :  Sand  Lucern,  Grimm  alfalfa,  Ontario  varie- 
gated, hardy  Blackhill  types. 

Yellow  flowers :  Siberian  or  sickle. 

The  semitropical  forms  are  characterized  by  very  large  size  and 
rapid  growth.  As  many  as  ten  or  twelve  cuttings  of  these  can  be 
made  in  southern  California.  They  also  have  a  hairy  covering,  and 
many  of  their  flowers  are  a  plum-colored  blue. 

The  blue- flowered  alfalfas,  so-called,  are  the  common  cultivated 
types.  The  flowers  vary  from  blue  to  purple.  The  range  northward 
of  the  common  alfalfas  has  already  been  described  as  South  Dakota 
and  central  New  York.  In  appearance  it  is  impossible  to  distin- 
guish common  alfalfa  from  Turkestan.  However,  records  show 
that  in  a  general  way  the  Turkestan  is  somewhat  less  productive, 
having  a  tendency  to  be  a  little  more  dwarfish  in  habit,  and  usually 
does  not  recover  so  quickly  after  cutting.  It  is  claimed  to  be  a  little 
more  drought-resistant  and  cold-resistant,  and  it  is  probably  true 
that  at  least  some  strains  of  Turkestan  are.  However,  Turkestan 
seed  is  produced  under  a  wide  range  of  conditions  in  western  Asia, 
and  it  is  not  safe  to  assume  that  any  particular  lot  of  commercial  seed 
would  be  satisfactory.  The  culture  of  Turkestan  should  not  be  en- 
couraged, now  that  we  have  known  strains  of  hardy  alfalfa  in  North 
America. 

The  variegated  alfalfas  are  thought  probably  to  have  originated 
from  hybrids  between  the  yellow-flowered  alfalfa  and  common  blue- 
flowered  alfalfa.  A  certain  per  cent  of  the  flowers  are  quite  variable 
in  color,  ranging  from  white  through  yellow,  greenish,  to  light  blue 


ALFALFA  ROOTS  387 

or  purple.  Generally,,  however,  the  variegated  flowers  constitute 
only  a  small  per  cent,  ranging  ordinarily  from  about  one  to  ten 
per  cent.  The  rest  of  the  flowers  are  indistinguishable  from  those 
of  ordinary  alfalfa.  The  oldest  cultivated  form  of  variegated  alfalfa 
is  known  as  Sand  Lucern  in  Europe.  It  is  highly  probable  that  all 
the  variegated  or  "  hardy  "  alfalfas  come  from  Sand  Lucern,  as  it  is 
known  that  the  original  seed  of  all  of  them  was  brought  from  central 
Germany,  where  Sand  Lucern  is  cultivated.  They  are  all  similar  in 
appearance,  but  undoubtedly  acclimation  has  given  some  slight  dif- 
ference in  hardiness  and  yield.  These  alfalfas  are  all  much  more 
winter-resistant  than  the  common  blue  alfalfa,  and  are  coming  to  be 
known  on  the  market  as  "  hardy  "  alfalfas. 

Yellow- flowered  or  Siberian  alfalfa  is  of  little  agricultural  value. 
It  is  a  native  plant  found  growing  throughout  Siberia,  and  is  said  to 
be  an  important  part  of  the  native  herbage.  Yellow  alfalfa  is  rather 
prostrate  in  habits  of  growth,  and  has  underground  rhizomes.  It 
usually  produces  but  one  crop  a  year.  We  have  most  interest  in  this 
plant  because  of  its  great  hardiness  and  the  possibility  of  hybridizing 
it  with  other  alfalfas  to  secure  hardy  strains.  The  variegated 
alfalfas,  which  are  supposed  to  have  originated  from  one  of  its 
hybrids,  show  some  tendency  to  partake  of  the  qualities  of  Siberian 
alfalfa,  in  having  variegated  flowers,  a  slight  tendency  to  prostrate 
stems,  and  the  occasional  production  of  rhizomes. 

Alfalfa  Roots. — Alfalfa  probably  sends  its  roots  deeper  than  any 
other  cultivated  plant.  In  ordinary  soil,  where  grasses  would  root 
one  to  two  feet  deep,  the  cereals  or  red  clover  four  to  five  feet  deep, 
alfalfa  usually  penetrates  eight  to  ten  feet.  On  some  of  the  soils  in 
the  western  States,  that  are  uniform  and  to  a  great  depth,  alfalfa 
roots  often  penetrate  twenty  to  thirty  feet. 

The  typical  alfalfa  plant  in  loose  soil  has  a  straight  tap  root  which 
may  be  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top.  Small  lateral 
roots  are  given  off  in  large  numbers.  However,  the  root  is  greatly 
modified  by  the  character  of  the  soil.  If  this  straight  tap  root  finds 
a  stratum  of  hard  subsoil,  it  is  usually  broken  up  into  a  much- 
branched  root.  Alfalfa  grown  on  hard,  compact  soil  usually  develops 
a  series  of  large  branch  roots  rather  than  tap  roots. 

Certain  forms  of  alfalfa  have  a  tendency   to   produce  more 


388  ALFALFA 

branched  roots  than  others.  It  is  said  that  the  variegated  alfalfas 
have  a  tendency  to  produce  branched  roots,  and  that  this  character 
is  correlated  with  winter  hardiness.  However,  the  character  of  the 
soil  so  affects  the  type  of  root  that  no  very  accurate  information  has 
been  collected  as  to  the  root  structure  of  the  different  forms  and  its 
relation  to  hardiness. 

Development  of  Shoots. — A  strong  alfalfa  plant,  under  aver- 
age conditions,  will  produce  from  twenty  to  fifty  stems,  although 
individual  plants  have  been  known  to  produce  as  high  as  three  hun- 
dred. The  top  of  the  plant  is  known  as  the  "  crown/'  made  up  of  a 
series  of  short,  heavy  branches.  Buds  arise  from  any  point  on  these 
branches  down  to  one  or  two  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
Usually  as  soon  as  the  first  set  of  stems  have  reached  full  height,  a 
new  crop  of  buds  develops,  ready  to  grow  up  at  once  if  the  old  stems 
are  cut  away.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  a  new  crop  of  stems  will 
be  produced  every  forty  days.  The  only  condition  that  seems  to 
retard  the  development  of  new  buds  is  extreme  drought.  In  very 
dry  regions  the  first  crop  of  stems  may  even  blossom  and  mature 
seed,  the  whole  time  taking  eighty  or  a  hundred  days,  with  very  little 
tendency  to  develop  new  buds,  unless  rain  comes  or  irrigation  water 
is  turned  on. 

In  humid  regions  it  is  usually  believed  best  to  cut  the  hay  when 
the  new  buds  are  well  started,  or  about  two  to  three  inches  in  length. 

Life  Period  of  Alfalfa. — In  humid  regions,  from  six  to  ten 
years  is  considered  the  average  life  of  an  alfalfa  meadow.  It  is 
much  longer  lived  in  dry  regions,  and  has  been  known  to  live  at 
least  fifty  years  and  produce  good  crops  in  semi-arid  countries.  In 
the  northern  States  the  plants  are  very  commonly  killed  through 
winter  injury.  On  heavy  clay  soils  the  plants  are  heaved  out  by 
hard  freezing.  In  other  cases  they  seem  to  be  killed  by  hard  freez- 
ing. In  humid  regions  the  old  plants  are  usually  sooner  or  later 
attacked  by  some  form  of  rot,  and  after  a  year  or  two  succumb. 

Submerging  is  very  injurious  to  alfalfa.  A  strong  alfalfa  field 
will  often  be  killed  out  by  flooding  not  more  than  two  or  three  days. 
This  is  especially  injurious  on  flat  lands  during  the  early  spring 
thaws.  A  thin  layer  of  frozen  water  for  only  one  or  two  days  will 


LIME  389 

usually  destroy  the  plants.  In  arid  regions,  where  the  plants  are 
free  from  winter  killing  and  the  ordinary  fungous  diseases  that 
cause  root  rot,  alfalfa  plants  are  very  long  lived. 

Pollination. — It  has  long  been  known  that  alfalfa  produces 
flowers  more  freely  in  dry,  sunshiny  climates  than  in  humid  regions. 
In  northeastern  United  States  very  few  flowers  are  produced,  espe- 
cially on  the  first  crop,  when  the  weather  is  likely  to  be  humid.  It 
is  very  seldom  that  a  seed  crop  is  produced  in  this  section.  In  the 
drier  regions  there  is  usually  no  difficulty  in  securing  a  seed  crop,  and 
this  seems  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  plants  flower  much  more 
abundantly,  and  natural  facilities  to  secure  pollination  are  better. 

In  alfalfa  the  stigma  and  anthers  are  tightly  held  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  flower.  Unless  they  are  freed  by  "  tripping,"  fertilization 
will  not  take  place.  This  can  be  demonstrated  by  taking  mature 
alfalfa  flowers  and  touching  the  inside  of  the  flower  with  a  fine- 
pointed  pencil  or  toothpick.  Under  field  conditions,  it  is  probable 
that  insects  do  most  of  trie  tripping.  It  has  also  been  observed  that 
the  flowers  will  trip  naturally  in  dry  weather  under  bright  sunshine. 

Soils  for  Alfalfa. — While  it  is  generally  supposed  that  alfalfas 
prefer  a  loose,  pervious  soil,  due  to  the  deep  root  system,  it  is  never- 
theless found  growing  very  successfully  on  some  of  the  heaviest 
gumbo  clays.  If  fertility  and  moisture  are  available,  the  texture 
>of  soil  does  not  seem  to  be  important. 

Drainage  is  very  important,  as  alfalfa  will  not  live  on  wet  land 
or  land  where  the  water  table  comes  to  the  surface  at  any  time  during 
the  year.  The  water  table  must  be  kept  at  least  two  feet,  and  better 
three  to  four  feet,  below  the  surface. 

Alfalfa  also  requires  a  very  fertile  soil.  While  most  of  the  clovers 
can  be  started  in  poor  soil  and  are  recommended  as  a  crop  to  build  up 
poor  soils,  this  is  not*true  of  alfalfa.  In  general,  land  that  would  not 
produce  twenty-five  bushels  of  wheat  or  forty  bushels  of  shelled  corn 
in  a  fair  season  is  not  suitable  for  growing  alfalfa  until  it  has  been 
manured  or  fertilized. 

Lime. — Sufficient  lime  in  the  soil  is  also  very  important.  The 
lack  of  lime  is  one  of  the  principal  reasons  why  alfalfa  culture  has 


390  ALFALFA 

been  limited  to  the  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Outside  of 
the  limestone  soils,  it  is  necessary  to  have  considerable  lime  to  insure 
alfalfa. 

Manure  and  fertilizers  are  practically  necessary  on  impover- 
ished soils.  Alfalfa  responds  to  barnyard  manure  better  than  any 
other  of  the  common  forage  crops.  It  has  often  been  found  that 
treating  land  with  manure  before  seeding  will  secure  a  crop  when  all 
other  means  fail.  Very  little  experimental  work  has  been  carried 
out  in  the  application  of  fertilizers,  but  wherever  tried  alfalfa  has 
usually  responded  well  to  the  use  of  acid  phosphate.  Two  hundred 
pounds  per  acre  is  recommended  as  a  yearly  application. 

Methods  of  Seeding  Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  is  generally  sown  with- 
out a  nurse  crop.  This  is  largely  because  it  is  grown  in  a  rather  dry 
climate,  where  the  use  of  nurse  crops  is  not  practical.  In  north- 
eastern United  States,  alfalfa  is  commonly  sown  with  a  nurse  crop, 
either  winter  wheat  or  oats,  on  the  limestone  soils.  Outside  of  the 
limestone  region,  however,  there  is  generally  difficulty  in  securing  a 
stand,  and  here  it  is  usually  sown  alone. 

Amount  of  Seed. — The  amount  of  seed  recommended  per  acre 
varies  from  ten  to  thirty  pounds.  Good  stands  have  been  secured 
with  five  pounds  per  acre,  but  the  young  plant  is  rather  delicate  and 
easily  destroyed  by  weeds.  Experience  has  shown  that  under  aver- 
age conditions  about  twenty  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  should  be  used. 
In  the  drier  regions,  where  farmers  prefer  thin  sowings  of  all  crops, 
ten  to  twelve  pounds  is  commonly  recommended.  Some  groAvers 
prefer  to  sow  as  high  as  thirty  pounds,  as  they  believe  the  thick  stand 
gives  them  a  finer  quality  of  hay  and  also  that  the  meadow  will  last 
longer. 

Inoculation  for  Alfalfa. — As  pointed  out  in  a  previous  chapter, 
inoculation  is  necessary  for  most  legumes.  Alfalfa  culture  was 
hindered  for  many  years  before  we  knew  about  the  necessity  of 
inoculation.  Alfalfa,  seed  often  carries  a  little  natural  inoculation, 
and  it  was  early  observed  by  farmers  that  if  a  field  were  sown  to 
alfalfa  and  failed  to  grow  more  than  a  few  plants,  if  it  was  plowed 
under  at  once,  thoroughly  worked  up  and  resown,  a  stand  would 
usually  be  secured  the  second  time.  This  became  a  recognized  rule 


TIME  OF  SOWING  391 

among  growers  before  they  knew  the  explanation.  The  natural 
inoculation,  however,  on  the  few  plants  that  succeeded,  was  enough 
to  inoculate  all  the  soil  when  it  was  replowed  and  scattered  through. 

The  most  successful  method  of  inoculation  up  to  recent  years 
has  been  to  carry  soil  from  an  old  alfalfa  field  to  the  new  one. 
Two  hundred  to  three  hundred  pounds  of  soil  per  acre  is  usually 
sufficient.  When  the  soil  is  transferred,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
allow  it  to  become  too  dry,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  spread  on  the  land  the 
ground  should  be  cultivated  or  harrowed,  as  exposure  to  bright  sun 
is  injurious.  An  excellent  way  is  to  mix  the  soil  with  manure  and 
apply  it  with  a  manure  spreader.  The  manure  furnishes  a  good 
medium  for  the  bacteria,  and  often  insures  inoculation  when  it  is 
difficult  to  secure  it  otherwise. 

At  present  artificial  culture  may  be  purchased  or  secured  from 
the  agricultural  colleges  and  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, which  is  very  simple  to  apply  and  generally '  successful  if 
directions  are  carefully  observed.  In  a  limestone  region,  after 
alfalfa  has  been  cultivated  for  a  number  of  years,  it  is  generally 
no  longer  necessary  to  inoculate  when  sowing,  as  natural  inoculation 
spreads  and  seems  to  remain  in  the  soil  for  many  years.  On  soils 
that  are  not  naturally  rich  in  lime  it  is  advisable  to  inoculate  when- 
ever alfalfa  is  sown. 

Time  of  Sowing. — Alfalfa  may  be  sown  any  time  during  the 
spring  or  early  summer.  The  principal  objection  to  this  is  that, 
no  crop  being  harvested  that  season,  the  use  of  the  land  is  practically 
lost.  Also,  if  the  land  is  infested  with  weeds,  it  is  not  possible  to 
free  the  land  from  weeds  before  sowing  alfalfa.  For  these  reasons 
many  farmers  prefer  to  sow  in  late  summer  or  possibly  in  early  fall, 
after  a  grain  crop  has  been  harvested.  In  the  northern  limits  of 
alfalfa  culture,  it  should  not  be  sown  later  than  the  first  of  August, 
but  southward,  the  season  may  be  correspondingly  later  (Fig.  169). 

One  of  the  main  precautions  in  fall  seeding  is  to  have  a  very  firm, 
compact  seed  bed,  as  alfalfa  will  go  through  the  first  winter  much 
better  on  a  solid  seed  bed  than  a  loose  one.  For  this  reason  many 
farmers  do  not  plow  for  fall  seeding,  but  merely  work  up  the  land 
thoroughly  with  the  disk  and  cultivator. 


392 


ALFALFA 


Harvesting  Alfalfa. — For  the  largest  total  yields  it  is  necessary 
to  cut  alfalfa  promptly  whenever  it  is  ready.  Many  western  farmers 
plan  to  cut  the  alfalfa  when  it  is  about  one-fourth  in  bloom.  This 
rule,  however,  will  not  do  in  the  northeastern  States,  where  alfalfa 
very  often  fails  to  bloom.  It  is  much  better  to  watch  the  develop- 
ment of  new  buds  from  the  crown  of  the  plant.  As  soon  as  these  are 


Fio  169  — Alfalfa  plants  from  seedings  sown  in  August,  September  and  October,  and 
taken  up  following  April.  Illustrates  importance  of  early  fall  sowing  to  secure  good,  strong 
plants.  (Nebraska  Experiment  Station.) 

well  started,  the  hay  should  be  cut  promptly.  Usually  the  cutting 
of  hay  can  be  made  every  thirty  or  forty  days  during  the  growing 
season.  This  will  give  about  three  cuttings  in  South  Dakota,  and 
five  or  six  cuttings  in  Texas. 

The  yield  of  alfalfa  depends  very  largely  upon  the  fertility  of 
the  land  and  water  supply.  The  average  yield  for  the  United  States 


CULTIVATION  OF  ALFALFA  393 

is  about  two  and  one-half  tons  per  acre,  but  on  many  farms  an 
average  of  three  and  one-half  tons  is  made.  Large  yields  of  five  to 
six  tons  are  not  uncommon. 

The  Seed  Crop. — The  commercial  seed  crop  of  alfalfa,  is  grown 
principally  in  Utah,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  California,  and  Arizona.  It 
is  grown  only  in  bright,  sunshiny  climates,  and  usually  with  a 
low  water  supply.  A  large  proportion  of  the  seed  is  grown  in 
the  irrigated  districts,  but  water  is  usually  withheld  from  the 
seed  crop.  East  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver  alfalfa  will  usually 
not  produce  a  profitable  seed  crop  oftener  than  once  in  three  or 
four  years. 

The  most  favorable  weather  for  securing  a  good  seed  crop  is  gen- 
erally the  hottest  and  driest  portion  of  the  summer.  In  the  northern 
States  it  is  the  general  custom  to  leave  the  second  crop  for  seed,  while 
from  Kansas  southward  the  third  crop  is  left  more  often.  An 
ordinary  yield  of  seed  varies  from  three  to  six  bushels  per  acre,  while 
eight  to  ten  bushels  is  considered  a  very  large  yield.. 

Growing  Alfalfa  in  Rows. — On  the  high,  dry  plains  much 
alfalfa  is  grown  in  cultivated  rows.  The  rows  are  usually  from  two 
to  three  feet  apart.  This  method  is  considered  practical  only  in 
regions  where  the  average  rainfall  is  below  fourteen  or  sixteen 
inches.  Very  good  seed  crops  can  be  secured  in  this  way,  and  the 
method  is  practised  principally  for  seed  growing  on  dry  soil  without 
irrigation. 

Cultivation  of  Alfalfa. — In  most  regions  where  alfalfa  is 
grown,  as  the  stand  begins  to  thin  out,  native  grasses,  and  especially 
blue-grass,  begin  to  come  in.  To  keep  out  these  grasses,  many 
growers  practise  disking  or  harrowing  their  fields  early  in  the  spring 
and  after  the  first  cutting.  If  the  work  is  done  with  care  and  judg- 
ment, it  is  possible  to  keep  down  the  incoming  grasses  to  a  large 
extent. 

It  has  also  been  thought  for  many  years  that  the  yield  could  be 
increased  by  disking  alfalfa  sod,  the  theory  being  that  the  disk  would 
split  up  the  old  crown,  causing  a  thicker  stand.  .  Experiments  with 
disking  have  usually  shown  an  increased  yield  the  first  year  or  so 


394 


ALFALFA 


that  it  was  practised,  after  which  the  yield  usually  declined.  The 
indications  are  that  the  disking  does  stimulate  and  increase  growth, 
but  it  also  injures  the  roots  and  permits  various  fungous  diseases  to 
enter  and  cause  root  rot,  so  that  in  a  year  or  two  the  plants  die  out 
very  rapidly.  In  dry  climates,  however,  root  rots  are  not  so  very 
troublesome,  and  the  disking  may  be  expected  to  give  good  results 
longer  in  such  climates  than  where  it  is  humid.  In  humid  regions  it 
is  agreed  that  disking  is  justified  only  on  old  fields  that  are  to  be 
plowed  up  the  following  year. 

Alfalfa  cultivators  of  various  forms  have  been  put  on  the  market. 


FIG.   170. — Alfalfa  seed  and  dodder  seed. 

Some  of  these  are  constructed  like  disk  harrows,  with  spikes  in  place 
of  the  disks.  Others  are  constructed  like  cultivators,  with  very  nar- 
row teeth  on  flexible  beams.  The  latter  form  is  now  generally 
considered  to  be  the  best. 

Pasturing  Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  is  considered  to  furnish  the  best 
hog  pasture  of  any  cultivated  forage  crop.  It  is  not  considered  well 
suited  for  cattle  or  sheep,  as  they  are  practically  sure  to  bloat.  No 
method  of  overcoming  this  difficulty  has  been  found,  where  pure 


DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES 


395 


alfalfa  is  used.     However,  where  the  pasture  is  about  half  alfalfa 
and  half  grass,  little  difficulty  is  experienced. 

The  principal  precaution  in  pasturing  alfalfa  is  not  to  graze 
it  too  closely.  It  is  generally  thought  best  to  have  enough  stock  on 
to  keep  it  only  partly  eaten  down,  and  make  at  least  two  light  cut- 
tings of  hay  during  the  season. 
Close  grazing  for  one  season 
will  usually  destroy  alfalfa, 
while  it  may  be  grazed  for  a 
number  of  years,  with  proper 
care. 

Conditions  seem  to  be  some- 
what different  in  dry  regions. 
In  very  dry  climates  it  can  be 
pastured  without  much  danger 
from  bloat  and  is  usually  not 
easily  destroyed  even  by  rather 
close  grazing.  The  reasons  for 
this  are  not  very  apparent,  but 
usually  in  dry  soil  the  crowns 
of  the  plant  are  very  much 
deeper  set  into  the  ground. 

Diseases  and  Enemies. — 
While  there  are  a  number  of 
diseases  found  on  the  alfalfa 
plant,  only  one  or  two  are  im- 
portant. 

Dodder,  or  love  vine,  is  a 
parasitic  weed  found  on  both 
alfalfa  and  clover  (Figs.  170  L 
and  171).  Dodder  is  a  leaf- 
less vine  which  attaches  itself  to  the  plant  and  lives  by  absorbing 
nourishment.  It  is  propagated  by  small  seeds.  The  seeds  ger- 
minate in  the  spring,  but  as  soon  as  the  young  plant  has  attached 
itself  to  alfalfa,  the  roots  die.  It  usually  spreads  rather  rapidly.  If 
only  a  few  small  areas  are  found  in  a  field,  these  can  be  destroyed  by 
cutting  the  alfalfa  plants  very  low  and  burning  all  the  material. 


FIG.  171.— Alfalfa  dodder. 


396  ALFALFA 

Where  the  field  is  generally  infected,  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to 
plow  up  the  field,  in  which  case  it  should  not  be  put  back  to  alfalfa 
for  at  least  two  or  three  years. 

Alfalfa  leaf  spot  occasionally  gives  trouble.  Small,  dark  brown 
spots  appear  on  the  leaves  and  cause  them  to  drop  off.  When  this 
disease  is  abundant,  the  plant  makes  a  very  poor  growth.  The  crop 
should  be  cut  at  once,  after  which  it  usually  will  be  free  from  the 
disease  the  rest  of  that  season. 

Root  rot  is  generally  used  to  describe  any  ordinary  decay  of  the 
root,  although  there  is  a  specific  disease  of  this  character.  The  most 
common  root  rots  are  comparable  to  the  rotting  of  any  woody  plant 
which  has  been  injured,  allowing  ordinary  fungous  diseases  to  enter 
and  cause  slow  decay. 

Insects. — Grasshoppers  are  sometimes  injurious,  especially  to 
new  seeding.  This  is  more  likely  to  be  true  when  alfalfa  is  sown  in 
the  fall,  and  grasshoppers  are  likely  to  migrate  in  large  numbers,  as 
their  own  natural  food  supply  decreases. 

The  alfalfa  leaf  weevil  made  its  first  appearance  in  this  country 
about  1904.  The  insect  is  most  injurious  to  the  first  crop,  when 
the  larvae  may  appear  in  large  numbers  and  almost  destroy  it.  The 
crop  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  larvae  appear  in  large  numbers. 
Then  the  field  should  be  thoroughly  gone  over  with  harrows  and  brush 
drags  to  destroy  what  insects  may  be  on  the  ground.  This  treat- 
ment not  only  kills  directly  many  of  the  larvae,  but  also  strips  the 
stubble  of  leaves,  helping  to  starve  them. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  has  alfalfa  attained  greatest  importance? 

2.  Describe  its  early  history  and  introduction  into  the  United  States. 

3.  Describe  the  climatic  requirements  of  alfalfa. 

4.  Does   it  vary    in   cold   resistance? 

5.  Classify  the  principal  types  of  alfalfa. 

6.  Compare  common  alfalfa  with  Turkestan,  with  variegated  alfalfa,  with 

yellow  alfalfa. 

7.  Describe  alfalfa  roots  on  various  soil  types. 

8.  Compare  the  root  systems  of  common,  variegated,  and  yellow  alfalfa. 

9.  Describe  the  development  of  new  shoots. 

10.  How  long  does  alfalfa  live  under  various  conditions? 

11.  Give  the  effect  of  submerging.     Other  causes  of  death. 

12.  What  are  the  conditions  effecting  pollination? 

13.  Give  soil  requirements  of  alfalfa.     Lime  requirements. 

14.  Fertilizers  for  alfalfa? 


QUESTIONS  397 

15.  How  is  alfalfa  usually  sown? 

16.  What  amount  of  seed  is  used  per  acre? 

17.  Give  the  best  method  of  inoculation. 

18.  What  are  the  best  times  for  sowing  alfalfa? 

19.  What  precautions  are  observed  in  fall  sowing? 

20.  State  time  to  harvest  alfalfa. 

21.  Where  is  the  seed  crop  grown? 

22.  What  climatic  conditions  are  required? 

23.  Describe  the  culture  of  alfalfa  in  rows. 

24.  Give  principal  reasons  for  and  against  the  cultivation  of  alfalfa  fields. 

25.  Name  precautions  to  be  observed  in  pasturing. 

26.  Describe  the  principal  diseases  and  insect  enemies  of  alfalfa. 


CHAPTER  XLII 

4 

THE  CLOVERS 

RED   CLOVER 

RED  clover  is  now  the  most  important  forage  crop  in  North 
America  (Fig.  172).  Its  easy  culture,  high  feeding  value,  adapta- 
tion to  growing  with  timothy,  and  adaptation  to  systems  of  crop 
rotation  are  the  reasons  for  its  popularity. 

Origin  and  History. — Red  clover  is  found  growing  wild 
throughout  temperate  Europe,  western  Asia,  and  north  Africa.  In 
its  wild  form,  it  is  quite  variable,  and  many  varieties  have  been  de- 
scribed. Little  is  known  about  its  early  culture,  but  it  had  a 
recognized  agricultural  value  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century,  was 
rather  common  throughout  Europe  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
very  extensively  cultivated  in  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  un- 
doubtedly among  the  first  plants  introduced  into  North  America, 
and  is  distinctly  mentioned  in  1747. 

Red  closer  is  cultivated  at  present  as  far  south  as  Tennessee,  but 
the  area  of  its  most  extensive  culture  is  from  the  Ohio  River  north- 
ward, including  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  in  Canada.  Its 
culture  extends  westward  to  the  great  dry  plains  region,  which  in 
general  would  be  fifty  or  one  hundred  miles  west  of  the  Missouri 
River.  It  is  also  cultivated  in  the  northwestern  States.  Red 
clover  is  very  cold-resistant,  and  is  seldom  killed  out  by  freezing, 
but  it  is  limited  southward  and  westward  by  the  hot,  dry  weather 
in  midsummer. 

In  the  South  red  clover  is  regarded  as  a  winter  annual.  It  can 
be  sown  in  the  fall  and  will  make  a  light  crop  the  following  season, 
but  is  usually  killed  out  the  following  August. 

Soils  for  Red  Clover. — Red  clover  differs  from  alfalfa  in  pre- 
ferring humid  regions  and  very  moist  soil.  It,  however,  is  like 
alfalfa  in  having  a  very  high  lime  requirement.  It  has  been  noted 
that  red  clover  culture  is  declining  throughout  the  eastern  States 
during  the  past  decade.  This  is  apparently  due  to  the  decreasing 
398 


SOILS  FOR  RED  CLOVER 


399 


FIG.   172. — Red  clover,  upper  figure,  and  white  clover,  lower  figure. 

lime  content  of  the  older  cultivated  soils.    Most  of  the  eastern  soils 
contain  sufficient  lime  for  red  clover  when  first  broughfunder  culti- 


400 


THE  CLOVERS 


vation.  The  lime  content  has  steadily  declined  and  with  the  decline 
red  clover  culture  has  become  increasingly  difficult.  Many  large 
regions  that  grew  red-  clover  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago  can  no 
longer  produce  it  without  the  use  of  lime. 

Agricultural  Varieties. — While  there  are  several  regional 
strains  of  red  clover  which  differ  in  small  detail,  there  are  only  two 
recognized  varieties  with  a  marked  difference.  They  are  usually 


FIG.   173. — Sowing  red  clover  in  fall  wheat  with  special  grass-seed  drill. 

known  in  the  market  as  medium  red  clover  and  mammoth  clover. 
The  principal  differences  are:  (1)  Mammoth  clover  is  about  two 
weeks  later  in  blossoming.  (2)  The  stems  of  medium  red  clover  are 
usually  hollow,  and  those  of  mammoth  clover  are  solid.  (3) 
Medium  red  clover  will  usually  make  both  a  hay  crop  and  seed 
crop  the  same  season,  while  mammoth  clover  will  make  only  one 
crop. 

A  form  differing  somewhat  from  common  medium  red  clover,  in- 
troduced from  Russia,  and  known  as  Orel,  has  been  tried  with  con- 
siderable success  in  the  United  States.  The  United  States  Depart- 


SOWING  CLOVER 


401 


ment  of  Agriculture  conducted  a  rather  extensive  experiment,  with 
different  strains  of  clover,  from  different  sources,  in  1905.  The  data, 
however,  were  so  variable  that  no  conclusion  could  be  drawn  as  to 
the  relative  merit  of  seed  from  different  regions. 

Sowing  Clover. — Red  clover  seed  may  be  scattered  upon  the 
land  almost  any  winter  month,  from  October  to  April,  with  reason- 
able expectation  of  success.  It  is,  however,  very  largely  sown  in 
March  and  April.  It  is  considered  best  to  sow  it  during  the 


FIG.    174. — Seeds    of    the    clovers.       Upper    row:      Red    clover;   crimson   clover;   trefoil; 
Japan  clover.     Lower  row:     White  clover;  alsike  clover;  sweet  clover;  alfalfa. 

spring  when  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  soil  is  taking 
place.  It  is  usually  sown  on  winter  wheat,  or  with  spring  grain 
(Fig.  173). 

Midsummer  is  the  most  unfavorable  time  to  sow  red  clover,  as  the 
young  plants  do  poorly  during  hot,  dry  weather. 

In  the  southern  States  red  clover  is  commonly  fall  sown.  This 
is  good  practice  as  far  north  as  it  can  be  depended  on  to  with- 
stand the  winter.  Probably  fall  sowing  is  not  practical  very  much 
north  of  central  Ohio  as  a  regular  practice.  In  central  Ohio  it 
should  be  sown  by  the  first  week  of  August  to  insure  it  going  through 
the  winter.  Compare  the  seed  of  red  clover  with  others  (Figs. 
174  and  175). 
26 


402  THE  CLOVERS 

Rate  of  Sowing. — About  eight  pounds  per  acre  is  the  standard 
rate  of  sowing  when  mixed  with  timothy,  or  ten  to  twelve  pounds 
when  sown  alone.  About  four-fifths  of  the  red  clover  is  sown  as  a 
mixture  with  timothy.  On  lands  where  red  clover  is  apt  to  fail  more 
or  less,  due  to  lack  of  lime,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  mix  red  clover 
with  alsike  at  the  rate  of  five  pounds  to  three.  Alsike  clover  will 
grow  on  portions  of  the  field  deficient  in  lime.  The  use  of  red 
clover  in  mixtures  has  been  fully  discussed  in  another  place  (see 
page  317). 

Fertilizers  for  Clover. — In  fertilizing  clover,  it  is  usually  not 
necessary  to  provide  nitrogen,  as  the  plant  is  capable  of  gathering  its 
own  nitrogen  supply.  Clover  plants  seem  to  respond  especially  to 


FIG.   175. — Red  clover  seed  and  common  weeds  often  found   in  it.       (1)  Wild  carrot,    (2) 
daisy,  (3)   buckhorn,  (4)   dodder,  (5)   red  clover. 

potash,  and  on  many  soils  phosphate  also  is  required.  In  fertilizer 
trials  it  has  generally  been  noted  that  where  large  amounts  of 
nitrogen  were  applied,  the  grasses  would  tend  to  run  out  the  clover ; 
on  the  other  hand,  where  potash  was  applied  in  relatively  large  quan- 
tities, the  clover  tends  to  run  out  grass.  As  clover  is  usually  sown 
with  small  grain,  the  fertilizer  is  applied  to  the  grain  crop,  and 
seldom  directly  to  the  clover  crop. 

Clover  in  Rotation.  — The  principles  of  crop  rotation  and  the 
use  of  clover  have  been  fully  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter.  Eed 
clover  fits  better  than  other  legumes  into  the  kind  of  rotation  suitable 
for  grain  farming.  It  can  be  sown  with  a  grain  crop,  so  that  the 
land  is  not  out  of  use  while  the  clover  is  becoming  established.  It 


HARVESTING  RED  CLOVER  403 

makes  a  very  vigorous  growth  the  following  season,  and  the  land  can 
be  plowed  the  next  year  to  be  put  back  to  grain.  It  has  been  dem- 
onstrated that  clover,  once  in  four  years,  will  ordinarily  maintain  the 
nitrogen  and  organic  supply  of  the  soil,  under  grain  farming. 

Roots  of  Clover. — Red  clover  has  a  branching  tap  root.  The 
main  roots  usually  penetrate  to  a  depth  of  four  or  five  feet.  While 
about  75  per  cent  of  the  clover  roots  are  in  the  upper  eight  inches, 
they  are  not  so  concentrated  in  the  upper  soil  strata  as  grass  roots. 
Red  clover  is  thought  to  draw  considerable  more  of  its  moisture  and 
plant  food  from  the  lower  soil  strata  than  grass. 

The  amount  of  root  residue  in  the  soil  has  been  determined  a 
number  of  times.  The  data  usually  vary  from  1000  to  5000  pounds 
per  acre  of  dry  weight.  Most  of  the  figures,  however,  will  aver- 
age not  far  from  1000  pounds.  The  proportion  of  roots  to  stems 
has  frequently  been  estimated,  with  great  variation  in  result, 
but  in  general  there  is  about  one  pound  of  root  to  two  pounds  above 
ground. 

Stems  and  Leaves. — Red  clover  has  a  rather  high  proportion  of 
coarse  stems.  A  mature  plant  usually  has  about  60  per  cent  stem,  30 
per  cent  leaves,  and  10  per  cent  flower  heads.  The  relative  value  of 
these  different  parts  varies.  The  average  protein  content  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  has  been  determined  to  be  about  as  follows: 

Stems    8.6  per  cent 

Leaf  stalks    11.2  per  cent 

Flower  heads 18.2  per  cent 

Leaves 24.6  per  cent 

It  may  be  also  stated  that  the  large  stems  contain  a  great  deal 
of  woody  matter  and  are  not  highly  digestible. 

Harvesting  Red  Clover. — In  general,  clovers  reach  their  maxi- 
mum yield  when  in  full  bloom,  after  which  they  usually  decline, 
probably  due  to  loss  of  leaves.  There  is  also  a  decline  in  quality 
as  the  stems  become  more  woody.  In  this  respect  clover  differs  from 
grass,  since  grass  usually  increases  in  weight  at  least  one-fourth  after 
the  blooming  period.  The  only  serious  drawback  to  the  mixing  of 
red  clover  with  timothy  is  the  fact  that  red  clover  matures  about  two 
weeks  ahead  of  the  timothy  and  has  usually  declined  in  quality  by 
the  time  the  timothy  is  ready  to  cut. 


404  THE  CLOVERS 

Bed  clover  grown  alone  is  not  easy  to  cure  into  a  good  grade 
of  hay.  It  is  apt  to  turn  very  dark  in  color,  and,  if  the  weather  is 
unfavorable,  is  apt  to  make  very  dusty  hay.  One  important  matter 
to  keep  in  mind  is  to  preserve  as  far  as  possible  the  leaves  and  small 
stems,  as  they  are,  pound  for  pound,  worth  about  twice  as  much  in 
feeding  value  as  large  stems. 

Brown  Hay. — As  clover  hay  is  so  difficult  to  cure  when  the 
weather  is  wet,  it  is  sometimes  made  into  brown  hay.  By  this 
method  the  hay  is  put  into  stacks  or  barns  when  wilted.  It  soon 
develops  a  high  natural  heat  that  prevents  decay  and  soon  dries  it 
out.  The  hay  is  a  dark  brown  color,  with  a  decided  odor.  There  is 
some  loss  in  valuable  feed  material  by  this  method,  but  it  is  con- 
sidered quite  satisfactory.  The  principal  disadvantage  is  the  large 
amount  of  labor  involved  in  handling  green  hay. 

Ensilage. — Red  clover  is  sometimes  put  in  the  silo,  but,  like  most 
legumes,  does  not  make  a  first  grade  of  silage  if  used  alone.  The 
silage  is  likely  to  be  somewhat  soft  and  acid.  It  is  usually  better 
to  mix  it  with  some  grass  crop  for  silage  purposes. 

Pollination  and  Seed  Production.  — It  is  well  known  that  red 
clover  requires  the  agency  of  insects  before  it  will  produce  seed. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  pollination  will  seldom  take  place  by 
natural  means.  Experiments  have  frequently  been  tried  by  covering 
clover  plants  with  screens  to  keep  out  the  insects.  Under  such  con- 
ditions, it  is  rarely  that  seed  will  be  set.  However,  if  bumblebees 
are  introduced  under  the  screen,  seed  is  readily  developed.  While 
several  insects  produce  pollination  in  clover,  the  bumblebee  is  recog- 
nized as  most  important.  Cross-pollination  seems  to  be  necessary  in 
clover,  and  bumblebees  seem  better  adapted  than  other  insects  for 
carrying  the  pollen  from  one  plant  to  the  other. 

The  Seed  Crop. — The  second  crop  is  generally  used  for  seed. 
It  is  found  that  the  second  crop  usually  produces  a  larger  yield  of 
seed,  though  the  reason  for  this  is  not  well  known.  Some  think 
that  the  hot  summer  weather  favors  seed  production,  and  also  that 
there  are  more  bumblebees  at  that  time  of  year.  The  most  im- 
portant reason,  however,  for  using  the  second  crop  for  seed  is  that 
practically  two  crops  are  obtained  this  way  in  a  season,  while  if  the 
first  crop  is  allowed  to  go  to  seed,  the  plant  usually  dies.,  and  there  is 


DISEASES  405 

no  aftermath.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  clover  belt  the  season 
is  not  long  enough  to  harvest  both  crops.  When  seed  is  grown  here, 
it  is  the  usual  custom  to  pasture  the  clover  till  about  June,  or  to  clip 
it  off  at  that  time  with  the  mowing  machine.  This  is  thought  to  give 
not  only  a  more  uniform  crop,  but  to  give  a  better  seed  crop  by  bring- 
ing the  seed  production  later  in  the  season. 

One  reason  why  mammoth  clover  is  not  more  generally  grown  is 
due  to  the  higher  price  of  seed,  the  seed  being  higher  because  it  will 
produce  only  one  crop  a  year.  Most  of  the  red  clover  seed  is  grown 
in  regions  where  the  second  crop  can  be  harvested. 

Harvesting  Seed  Crop. — The  seed  crop  is  generally  cut  with  a 
mowing  machine.  Sometimes  a  buncher  attachment  is  used,  which 
leaves  the  clover  either  in  wind-rows  or  bunches.  It  may  be  cured 
in  the  field  and  then  put  in  stacks,  or  it  is  sometimes  left  in  the 
field  for  several  weeks  until  the  straw  has  more  or  less  rotted.  The 
threshing  is  usually  done  with  a  special  machine  called  a  clover 
huller. 

Average  yields  are  usually  about  two  bushels  per  acre,  but  large 
yields  of  five  or  six  bushels  are  not  uncommon.  It  is  very  difficult 
to  estimate  the  probable  yield  of  seed.  One  method  of  estimating  it 
is  to  collect  a  number  of  representative  heads  and  shell  out  the  seed. 
If  there  is  a  thick,  full  stand  of  clover,  an  average  of  ten  seeds  per 
head  may  be  estimated  as  equivalent  to  a  bushel  per  acre.  As  there 
is  seldom  a  full  stand  of  heads,  it  is  probable  that  under  average  con- 
ditions the  head  should  average  nearer  twenty  seeds  per  head  to 
equal  a  bushel  per  acre  (Fig.  175). 

Color  of  Seed. — Clover  seed  varies  from  a  bright  yellow  to  a 
dark  purple  in  color.  As  a  general  thing,  the  seed  from  a  single 
plant  is  more  or  less  alike  in  color,  and  there  is  a  general  tendency 
for  seed  to  produce  plants  yielding  seed  of  the  same  color, 
though  there  is  always  great  variation.  Seeds  also  get  darker  or 
more  purple  in  color  as  they  ripen.  In  general,  if  the  seeds  are  all 
mature,  there  appears  to  be  no  difference  in  the  value  of  yellow  or 
purple  seed. 

Diseases.  —Many  diseases  are  found  in  the  clover  plant, but  none 
of  them  do  serious  injury.  Clover  anthracnose  has  been  reported  as 
serious  in  Tennessee. 


406  THE  CLOVERS 

« 

Clover  sickness  is  a  term  usually  applied  to  the  soil  when  clover 
can  no  longer  be  grown  on  land  where  it  previously  grew.  The 
causes  of  clover  sickness  are  not  well  known,  but  it  has  b5en  demon- 
strated that  one  cause  is  the  decreasing  lime  content  of  the  soil.  On 
many  such  soils  the  addition  of  lime  has  restored  clover  growing. 
It  is  claimed,  howeve,r,  to  fail  even  where  lime  is  added. 

Inoculation  for  Clover.  — In  general,  artificial  inoculation  has 
not  been  practised.  It  is  probable  that  more  or  less  natural  inocula- 
tion is  carried  about  on  clover  seed  and  probably  in  this  way  it  was 
first  distributed  throughout  the  country.  Eed  clover  is  so  ex- 
tensively grown  that  it  has  usually  riot  been  necessary  to  inoculate. 
However,  in  new  regions,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  secure  stands  of 
red  clover  for  many  years,  and  it  is  probable  this  is  due  to  lack  of 
inoculation.  Eecent  experiments  have  shown  that  in  regions  where 
red  clover  has  not  been  cultivated  for  many  years  inoculation  usually 
gives  better  results. 

ALSIKE    CLOVER 

Alsike  clover  (Fig.  176)  derives  its  name  from  the  province  of 
the  same  name  in  Sweden,  where  it  has  long  been  extensively  grown. 
It  seems  to  have  been  brought  into  cultivation  probably  in  Sweden 
or  that  vicinity.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  cultivated  forage  crop  in  1750. 
From  there  it  spread  to  England  and  adjoining  countries  in  Europe, 
and  was  apparently  introduced  quite  early  into  the  United  States, 
though  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  cultivated  to  any  extent,  at 
least,  until  1850.  The  early  botanist  Linnaeus  thought  it  to  be  a 
hybrid  between  red  clover  and  white  clover,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
this  is  the  case. 

Characters. — Alsike  clover  is  a  long-lived  perennial,  and  in  this 
differs  from  red  clover,  which  is  a  short-lived  perennial.  The  stems 
are  about  as  tall  as  those  of  red  clover,  but  are  more  slender  and 
prostrate  at  the  base.  It  also  differs  from  red  clover  in  having  a 
more  or  less  continuous  growing  season  throughout  the  summer. 

Climate  and  Soil  Adaptations. — Alsike  clover  has  a  much 
wider  range  of  adaptation  than  red  clover.  It  naturally  prefers  a 
cool  climate  and  wet  soil;  but  it  will  endure  at  least  as  much  dry 


CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  ADAPTATIONS 


407 


weather  as  red  clover,,  and  is  more  resistant  to  both  cold  and  heat. 
This  enables  alsike  to  grow  in  several  places  where  red  clover  fails, 
such  es  v^-y  wet  soil,  or  in  regions  where  red  clover  winter  kills.,  and 
will  also  grow  farther  south  where  the  summers  are  hot. 


FIG.   176. — Alsike  clover. 


The  quality  of  greatest  importance  from  an  agricultural  stand- 
point is  its  ability  to  grow  on  land  low  in  lime,  where  ordinary  red 
clover  fails.  Where  red  clover  dpes  well,  alsike  can  not  compete  with 
it,  but  red  clover  now  fails  more  or  less  over  such  a  large  area,  due  to 


408  THE  CLOVERS 

the  lack  of  lime,  that  alsike  is  coming  to  have  an  important  place. 
Alsike  also  grows  on  the  so-called  "  clover  sick  "  soils,  whatever  the 
cause  may  be.  At  present  alsike  is  grown  mostly  in  the  northern 
tier  of  States  and  province  of  Ontario  in  Canada. 

Culture. — The  culture  of  alsike  clover  is  almost  identical  with 
that  of  red  clover.  The  seed,  however,  is  much  smaller  and  five  to 
eight  pounds  is  considered  a  full  seeding.  On  wet  land  alsike  is 
very  commonly  sown  alone  or  with  red  top.  As  red  clover  seems  to 
make  a  natural  mixture  with  timothy,  both  growing  better  in  lime- 
stone soils,  alsike  seems  to  make  a  natural  mixture  with  redtop,  as 
both  will  grow  on  very  wet  soils  and  in  soils  deficient  in  lime. 

Alsike  is  coming  to  be  very  generally  sown  in  mixtures  of  timothy 
and  red  clover.  In  many  regions,  where  red  clover  is  extensively 
grown,  it  is  becoming  somewhat  uncertain,  arid  in  almost  every  field 
there  will  be  certain  areas  where  the  red  clover  will  be  a  partial  or 
complete  failure.  It  is  now  becoming  very  general  to  sow  a  mixture 
of  five  pounds  of  red  clover  to  three  pounds  of  alsike  per  acre  with 
the  timothy.  The  alsike  will  grow  on  all  the  spots  where  the  red 
clover  will  be  thin  or  fail,  and  thus  insure  a  full  stand  of  clover. 

Alsike  is  also  used  in  pasture  mixtures,  due  to  its  adaptation  to 
rather  adverse  soil  conditions,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  a  very  long- 
lived  plant  and  will  endure  for  several  years.  As  a  hay  crop,  alsike 
will  yield  about  two-thirds  as  much  as  red  clover  on  soils  where  red 
clover  is  at  its  best,  but  in  many  localities  it  will  yield  as  much  as 
red  clover.  Alsike  usually  produces  a  good  seed  crop,  the  yield 
varying  from  two  to  six  bushels  per  acre.  The  seed  has  good  vitality 
and  grows  very  quickly. 

WHITE    CLOVER 

White  clover  (Figs.  172  and  177)  is  found  growing  wild 
throughout  temperate  Europe  and  Asia.  Since  its  introduction  into 
the  United  States,  it  has  spread  very  rapidly,  and  is  found  growing 
wild  throughout  almost  all  the  cultivated  area  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  It  seems  first  to  have  been  brought  into  cultivation  in 
Holland  and  is  sometimes  known  as  Dutch  clover.  From  this  region 
it  spread  to  the  adjoining  countries  and  England  about  1750.  It 


ADAPTATIONS 


409 


seems  to  have  been  brought  to  the  United  States  with  the  early 
colonists,  for  by  1747  it  was  already  recognized  as  a  wild  plant  in  the 
eastern  States. 

Description. — White  clover  resembles  alsike  in  being  a  long- 
lived  perennial,  but  differs  from  both  red  clover  and  alsike  in  its 
ability  to  spread  by  means  of  creeping  stems.  This  enables  it  to 
maintain  itself  under  pasture  conditions.  A  single  plant  will 
usually  spread  gradually  in  the  r  ^ 

same  way  that  blue-grass  does,  till 
it  occupies  considerable  area. 
Other  clovers  have  no  means  of 
spreading  from  the  roots,  and; 
usually,  when  the  original  plant 
dies,  the  clover  disappears.  White 
clover  also  has  the  ability  to  pro- 
duce seed  under  pasture.  The  seed 
heads  will  rise  not  more  than  an 
inch  or  two  above  the  surface, 
and  then  turn  downward  so  close 
to  the  ground  that  they  are  not 
eaten  off  in  the  grazing.  A  con- 
siderable per  cent  of  the  seed  is 
hard,  and  remains  in  the  ground 
for  one  or  more  years  before  ger- 
minating. It  sometimes  occurs 
that  white  clover  will  almost  dis- 
appear from  a  pasture  during  a 
series  of  dry,  unfavorable  years;  FlG-  177-~ white  cloven 

but  will  usually  return  quickly  with  more  favorable  seasons.  The 
fact  that  a  certain  amount  of  the  seed  is  hard  and  remains  dormant 
probably  assists  it  to  return. 

Adaptations. — White  clover  probably  has  even  a  wider  soil  and 
climatic  adaptation  than  alsike.  This  would  be  especially  true 
toward  the  warmer  and  drier  regions.  While  both  red  clover  and 
alsike  will  summer-kill  in  the  cotton  belt,  white  clover  will  survive, 
and  is  therefore  of  considerable  importance  as  a  pasture  plant  in  the 


410  THE  CLOVERS 

southern  States.  Like  alsike,  it  will  also  grow  on  land  deficient  in 
lime,  but  probably  is  not  adapted  to  extremely  wet  soil  on  which 
alsike  would  grow. 

Mixtures. — White  clover  is  recognized  as  a  natural  mixture  with 
blue-grass  in  the  same  way  that  alsike  mixes  well  with  redtop  and  red 
clover  with  timothy.  Both  white  clover  and  blue-grass  are  perma- 
nent, long-lived  perennials  low  growing  in  habit,  spreading  by  creep- 
ing root  stalks,  and  well  adapted  to  both  lawn  and  pasture  purposes. 
They  are  commonly  sown  together  for  lawns,  and  almost  always  sown 
in  permanent  pastures.  In  pasture  or  lawn  mixtures,  usually  about 
two  to  five  pounds  of  white  clover  seed  are  used,  or  when  sown  alone, 
five  to  eight  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  Like  other  clovers,  it  can  be 
sown  during  any  winter  month  or  early  spring.  If  sown  in  the  fall, 
it  should  haVe  at  least  two  to  three  months  before  freezing  weather 
comes  in  the  northern  States.  White  clover  seed  is  grown  mostly 
in  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  in  the  United  States,  in  Ontario,  and 
several  places  in  Europe.  The  seed  is  usually  of  good  quality,  and 
retains  vitality  two  to  three  years. 

SWEET    CLOVER 

Description.  — There  are  three  common  varieties  of  sweet  clover, 
generally  known  as  white  sweet  clover  (Fig.  178),  yellow  sweet  clover 
and  annual  or  "  sour  "  clover.  The  white  sweet  clover  is  the  largest 
and  most  vigorous  type,  and  about  the  only  one  recommended  for 
cultivation.  It  will  grow  from  six  to  eight  feet  tall  in  ordinary  good 
soil.  Yellow  sweet  clover  is  not  quite  as  tall,  less  branching  and  has 
fewer  leaves.  It  probably  would  not  yield  more  than  half  as 
much  forage  as  the  white  variety.  The  annual  sweet  clover  is  a 
small  variety  growing  from  one  to  two  feet  in  height,  and  an  annual, 
while  the  two  others  are  both  biennial.  The  annual  sweet  clover, 
however,  spreads  very  rapidly  by  natural  means,  and  in  some  places 
furnishes  considerable  natural  forage,  being  most  prevalent  at 
present  in  southern  California. 

Large  white  sweet  clover,  which  is  also  known  as  Bokhara,  meliot, 
or  melilotus,  and  bee  clover,  is  a  native  of  temperate  Europe  and 
Asia.  Since  its  introduction  into  the  Western  Hemisphere,  it  has 


DESCRIPTION 


411 


spread  by  natural  means  over  much  of  both  North  and  South 
America,  where  it  is  recognized  as  a  common  roadside  weed.  It 
seems  to  have  been  first  cultivated  probably  in  western  Asia,  and 


FIG.   178. — Sweet  clover. 

was  early  brought  to  the  American  colonies,  being  distinctly  men- 
tioned as  common  in  Virginia  as  early  as  1739. 

Sweet  clover  is  a  strong  growing  biennial,  making  a  rather  slow 
growth  the  first  season,  reaching  a  height  of  three  to  four  feet.  It 
will  sometimes  bloom  at  the  end  of  the  first  season,  especially  in  the 


412  THE  CLOVERS 

southern  States.  The  second  year  it  starts  growth  very  early  and 
grows  with  great  vigor,  reaching  full  height  in  about  two  months, 
or  the  first  part  of  July  in  the  northern  States.  If  cut  down  for 
hay  at  this  time,  it  will  at  once  produce  a  second  crop.  In  the 
southern  States  it  may  be  cut  three  times  during  the  season,  but 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  cut  the  stubble  too  close,  as  the  new  stalks 
sprout  from  above  ground. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — The  seed  is  produced  very  abundantly.  It 
is  usually  the  custom  to  cut  the  first  crop  for  hay  or  pasture  it  down 
till  about  July  first  and  take  the  second  crop  for  seed.  The  seed 
shatters  off  very  easily  as  it  ripens,  and  it  is  generally  necessary  to 
cut  the  seed  crop  and  handle  it  during  damp  weather  or  while  the 
dew  is  on  in  the  morning. 

In  nature  the  seed  usually  falls  upon  the  ground  in  the  seed 
pod,  and  remains  till  the  following  spring  before  germinating. 
Usually  a  high  per  cent  of  the  seeds  are  classed  as  hard  seeds ;  from 
forty  to  sixty  per  cent  generally  remain  dormant  during  the  first  year. 
This  quality  makes  sweet  clover  quite  permanent  under  natural  con- 
ditions, as  there  is  usually  some  seed  in  the  soil  to  germinate,  even 
when  one  or  two  crops  are  completely  destroyed.  In  the  United 
States  the  seed  is  usually  not  free  from  the  pod,  but  much  of  the 
European  seed  is  recleaned  and  free  from  pod.  In  appearance  the 
seed  very  much  resembles  alfalfa  and  is  sometimes  used  to  adulterate 
alfalfa. 

In  sowing  sweet  clover,  it  is  most  commonly  sown  either  in  the 
fall  or  early  spring  with  wheat  or  rye.  Much  of  the  commercial 
seed  on  the  market  is  of  poor  quality,  probably  due  to  the  irregular 
demand  and  the  seed  stock  becoming  old  and  worthless.  In  some 
cases,  however,  the  per  cent  of  hard  seed  is  so  large  that  a  poor  stand 
will  be  secured  the  first  year.  For  these  reasons  it  is  usually  best  to 
make  a  germination  test  of  sweet  clover  seed  before  sowing. 

Adaptation. — While  sweet  clover  is  very  cold-resistant,  seldom 
winter-killing  even  where  red  clover  will  succumb,  it  is  also  well 
adapted  to  southern  climates.  In  fact,  it  is  cultivated  most  ex- 
tensively at  present  in  Alabama,  Mississippi  and  Kentucky.  Sweet 
clover  naturally  prefers  a  soil  well  supplied  with  lime,  being  about 
in  the  same  class  in  this  respect  as  red  clover  or  alfalfa.  It  is 


INOCULATION  413 

such  a  vigorous  plant,  however,  that  the  roots  will  often  reach 
into  the  subsoil,  where  the  lime  supply  is  frequently  sufficient  when 
the  surface  is  exhausted.  For  this  reason  we  sometimes  find  it  grow- 
ing on  soils  where  red  clover  and  alfalfa  would  fail.  Sweet  clover  is 
very  commonly  found  growing  wild  along  railroad  cuts  where  the 
subsoil  is  exposed,  which  illustrates  its  ability  to  grow  in  raw  soils, 
poor  in  organic  matter,  where  most  cultivated  plants  would  fail. 
Sweet  clover  will  also  grow  in  impoverished  sand  hills,  and 
sandy  soils  where  few  other  cultivated  plants  would  succeed,  and 
for  this  reason  is  recommended  as  a  plant  for  green  manure  on 
such  soils. 

Utilizing  the  Crop. — Sweet  clover  has  a  decidedly  sweet  odor, 
from  which  it  derives  its  name.  This  odor  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  cumarin,  which  gives  a  peculiar  bitter  taste.  Animals  usually 
refuse  sweet  clover  plants  until  they  have  acquired  a  taste  for  them. 
However,  animals  will  usually  eat  the  young  plants  readily,  as  these 
contain  much  less  cumarin.  If  continued  on  sweet  clover  pasture, 
they  acquire  a  taste  for  it,  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  using  it  as  a 
pasture  plant.  When  made  into  hay,  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  cumarin  is  volatilized,  but  the  hay  has  a  decidedly  sweet  odor 
and  animals  must  be  accustomed  to  it. 

Sweet  clover  makes  an  excellent  temporary  hog  pasture,  and  in 
some  places  is  used  to  a  limited  extent  for  cattle  pasture.  It  is 
claimed  that  if  a  part  of  the  plants  are  permitted  to  go  to  seed  in  the 
fall  of  each  year  and  the  new  plants  allowed  to  make  some  start  a 
continuous  pasture  may  be  maintained  for  several  years,  although  the 
plant  is  really  a  biennial. 

For  hay,  sweet  clover  should  be  cut  just  as  it  comes  into  bloom, 
as  the  large  stems  become  woody  very  rapidly.  Under  favorable 
conditions  a  light  cutting  of  hay  can  be  made  the  first  year  it  is 
sown,  and  two  to  three  cuttings  the  second  year.  The  second  year 
it  should  yield  three  to  four  tons  of  cured  hay  per  acre. 

Inoculation. — Sweet  clover  grows  naturally  over  such  a  wide 
area  that  many  do  not  think  it  needs  inoculation.  It  is  probable  that 
more  natural  inoculation  is  carried  on  the  seed  of  sweet  clover  than 
most  legumes,  especially  when  it  is  sold  in  the  rough.  Experiments 
have  shown,  however,  that  it  responds  almost  as  well  to  inoculation 


414  THE  CLOVERS 

as  alfalfa.,  and  this  is  quite  necessary  in  regions  where  it  has  never 
been  grown.  It  happens,  however,  that  it  may  be  inoculated  with 
the  same  bacteria  as  alfalfa,  or  by  the  use  of  soil  from  old  alfalfa 
fields. 

CRIMSON   CLOVER 

Crimson  clover  is  a  native  of  the  warmer  portion  of  Europe, 
occurring  under  favorable  conditions  as  far  north  as  England.  It 
is  cultivated  in  this  region  at  present,  and  was  probably  introduced 
into  the  United  States  about  a  hundred  years  ago.  It  is  only  within 
the  last  thirty  years,  however,  that  it  has  come  to  be  recognized  as 
having  much  agricultural  value  in  the  United  States. 

Description. — Crimson  clover,  as  its  name  indicates,  has  a  con- 
spicuous crimson  or  scarlet  flower  head.  It  is,  strictly  speaking,  an 
annual  plant,  but  in  agricultural  practice  is  generally  used  as  a 
winter  annual,  being  sown  in  the  fall,  and  harvested  early  the  next 
season. 

Adaptation. —  Crimson  clover  is  not  very  cold-resistant,  and  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  is  very  seldom  sown  north  of 
New  Jersey.  However,  on  the  Pacific  Coast  it  will  grow  as  far 
north  as  Oregon  and  Washington.  While  crimson  clover  prefers 
limestone  soils,  it  will  grow  on  soils  quite  low  in  lime  content,  and 
seems  to  be  one  of  the  best  plants  to  grow  on  sandy  soils. 

Crimson  clover  also  does  well  in  the  Gulf  States  if  sown  early 
enough  to  make  a  good  growth  before  winter,  but  the  dry  weather  in 
late  summer  often  makes  seeding  difficult.  The  region  where 
crimson  clover  is  at  present  of  greatest  importance  is  New  Jersey  and 
Maryland  southward  to  the  Carolinas.  Here  it  has  come  to  be  a  very 
important  green  manuring  crop,  as  it  can  be  sown  in  the  fall,  after  a 
cultivated  crop  such  as  potatoes,  or  in  the  corn  field,  will  make  a 
good  winter  growth,  and  can  be  turned  under  by  May  of  the 
following  year  for  green  manure. 

Seed  and  Seeding. — Crimson  clover  seed  is  large,  usually  about 
twice  or  three  times  the  size  of  red  clover.  It  grows  very  easily,  and 
twelve  to  twenty  pounds  per  acre  is  the  usual  rate  of  seeding.  The 
seed  is  largely  imported  from  Europe  at  present,  though  it  produces 
a  good  seed  crop  in  America,  but  the  business  of  harvesting  the  seed 


BURR  CLOVER  415 

crop  has  not  been  developed.  It  is  the  general  custom  in  New 
Jersey  to  sow  the  seed  in  the  fall,  usually  during  August  or  Sep- 
tember. North  of  New  Jersey,  when  grown  at  all,  it  must  be  sown 
in  the  spring. 

In  the  large  potato  and  truck  crop  districts  along  the  Atlantic 
Coast  crimson  clover  is  very  generally  sown  after  the  potato  crop  is 
taken  off.  Probably  the  most  common  way  of  sowing  it,  however, 
is  in  the  standing  corn  at  the  last  cultivation.  As  it  is  grown  more 
commonly  for  a  green  manure  crop  than  hay,  it  may  be  turned  under 
early  enough  the  following  season  to  put  in  another  cultivated  crop. 
It  makes  a  very  rapid  growth  during  the  fall  and  early  spring. 

Utilizing  the  Crop. — When  crimson  clover  is  cut  for  hay,  it 
should  be  cut  rather  green,  as  the  flower  heads  are  covered  with  hard, 
stiff  hairs  that  are  likely  to  give  trouble  when  the  hay  is  fed.  These 
hairs  form  the  compact  "  hair  balls  "  which  sometimes  form  in  the 
stomachs  and  intestines  of  animals  fed  with  crimson  clover.  How- 
ever, if  cut  fairly  green  there  is  little  trouble  from  this  source.  It  is 
also  generally  believed  that  it  is  better  to  feed  only  a  part  ration  of 
crimson  clover  hay. 

It  is  common  practice,  when  crimson  clover  is  intended  for 
hay  purposes,  to  mix  it  with  winter  wheat  or  winter  oats,  cutting  and 
curing  all  together.  The  yield  is  not  only  much  heavier,  but  thought 
by  many  to  make  a  more  desirable  hay. 

BURR  CLOVER 

The  burr  clovers  (Fig.  179)  are  related  to  the  alfalfas,  and  while 
they  resemble  them  in  the  shape  of  the  leaf,  the  burr  clovers  are  all 
spreading,  prostrate  plants.  There  are  both  annual  and  perennial 
forms,  but  in  general  are  adapted  only  to  southern  climates.  The 
name  is  due  to  the  seed  pod,  which  is  usually  covered  with  short 
spines,  giving  the  whole  an  appearance  of  burrs.  There  are  two 
forms  of  burr  clover  commonly  found  in  the  United  States,  generally 
known  as  spotted  burr  clover,  due  to  a  dark  blue  purple  spot  on  each 
leaflet,  and  toothed  burr  clover,  from  the  dentate  leaflets.  Both  of 
these  burr  clovers  have  become  generally  distributed  through  south- 
ern California,  where  they  form  quite  an  important  natural  herbage. 


416 


THE  CLOVERS 


They  are  also  more  or  less  distributed  through  all  the  southern  States. 
The  cultivation  of  burr  clover  has  never  been  extensive,  partly  due  to 
the  difficulty  in  harvesting  the  seed.  The  seed  usually  drops  to  the 
ground  as  soon  as  mature.  In  pure  cultures,  the  burr  clover  is  gen- 
erally quite  prostrate  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  harvest  in  such  a 
way  as  to  save  the  seed. 

Burr  clover  grows  well  during  the  winter  months,  and  its  greatest 
value  is  as  a  winter  pasture  plant  or  winter  cover  crop  in  the  south- 


FIG.  179. — Seed  pods  and  seeds  of  burr  clover.    (Enlarged.) 

ern  States.  When  once  established,  it  reseeds  so  freely  that  it  usually 
maintains  itself  without  difficulty.  The  seed  may  be  sown  any  time, 
but  preferably  in  early  fall.  Burr  clover  is  commonly  recommended 
to  sow  as  a  pasture  plant  with  Bermuda  grass,  as  the  Bermuda  grass 
grows  during  the  summer,  but  is  dead  during  the  winter.  The  burr 
clover,  however,  growing  through  the  winter,  furnishes  a  continuous 
pasture.  The  commercial  supply  of  burr  clover  seed  is  limited  at 
present,  but  better  methods  of  harvesting  and  cleaning  the  seed  are 
being  developed  as  its  use  increases. 


UTILIZATION  417 

JAPAN    CLOVER 

Japan  clover  is  a  low-growing  animal  from  east  Asia.  It  is  not 
known  when  or  how  it  was  introduced  into  the  United  States,  but  it 
was  found  growing  more  or  less  wild  in  Georgia  as  early  as  1846. 
It  has  spread  as  a  wild  plant  throughout  all  southern  States  north 
to  Virginia  and  west  to  Texas. 

Description.— Japan  clover  is  an  annual,  growing  six  to  eight 
inches  high  under  ordinary  conditions,  but  under  very  favorable  con- 
ditions it  sometimes  reaches  a  height  of  twelve  to  fifteen  inches.  It 
is  sensitive  to  frost  and  grows  only  during  hot  weather.  It  covers 
the  ground  with  a  thick,  close  mat  of  vine-like  plants  with  minute 
blossoms  and  clover-like  leaves. 

Adaptations. — As  a  wild  plant,  Japan  clover  has  not  spread  very 
much  north  of  Virginia.  The  region  where  it  seems  to  be  best 
adapted  as  a  cultivated  crop  is  from  Virginia  southward.  It  grows 
on  almost  any  well-drained  soil,  with  remarkable  ability  to  grow 
well  on  poor,  sandy  soil.  It  will  also  withstand  considerable  shade, 
which  adapts  it  to  lawn  purposes.  Japan  clover  has  apparently- 
reached  its  best  development  in  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley,  where 
it  is  recognized  as  a  forage  plant  of  considerable  value. 

Culture. — The  seeds  of  Japan  clover  normally  ripen  from  about 
September,  when  they  fall  on  the  ground,  but  do  not  germinate 
until  the  warm  weather  of  the  following  spring.  It  grows  rapidly 
and  soon  covers  the  ground  with  a  thick  mat  which  begins  to  blossom 
in  about  two  months  and  the  seed  crop  is  ripened  in  about  four 
months.  It  usually  seeds  very  abundantly.  The  seed  can  be  sown 
any  time  during  the  winter  months  and  is  usually  sown  with  winter 
grain.  After  harvest  it  takes  possession  of  the  ground  and  usually 
reseeds  so  abundantly  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  sow  it  a  second  time 
if  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  land  in  Japan  clover. 

Utilization. — Japan  clover  makes  an  excellent  summer  pasture, 
and  is  about  the  only  legume  well  adapted  to  grow  with  Bermuda 
grass.  A  mixture  of  Bermuda  grass  and  Japan  clover  with  burr  clover 
furnishes  a  year-round  pasture  in  the  South.  While  both  Japan  clover 
and  burr  clover  are  annuals,  they  reseed  themselves  so  abundantly 
27 


418  THE  CLOVERS- 

that  it  is  usually  not  necessary  to  sow  them  again.  Japan  clover  is  sel- 
dom cut  for  hay  except  on  very  rich  land,  as  it  is  usually  too  low 
growing  and  the  hay  crop  not  large.  On  rich  land,  however,  it  will 
cut  as  high  as  two  tons  to  the  acre. 

VELVET    BEANS 

The  Florida  velvet  bean  is  a  native  plant  of  India,  where  several 
other  species  are  found.  It  is  a  very  large,  strong-growing  vine, 
sometimes  reaching  a  length  of  thirty  to  forty  feet.  It  requires  a 
hot  season  and  a  long  growing  season  of  200  days  to  mature.  It  is 
adapted  only  to  Florida  and  the  Gulf  Coast. 

The  bean  may  be  planted  alone,  when  it  forms  a  dense  mass  of 
vines,  but  usually  produces  few  seeds.  To  secure  a  seed  crop  it 
should  be  supported  on  some  upright  plant,  such  as  corn  or  sorghum. 
When  planted  alone,  one  plant  every  five  feet  each  way  is  sufficient 
to  cover  the  ground.  It  is  most  commonly  grown  with  corn,  how- 
ever, with  one  plant  about  every  five  feet  in  the  row.  It  is  probably 
a  better  practice  to  alternate  rows  of  velvet  bean  with  corn  at  the 
rate  of  one  row  of  velvet  beans  to  three  rows  of  corn. 

The  plant  is  so  large  that  it  is  not  practical  to  harvest  the  forage 
for  hay.  The  best  way  to  utilize  is  to  turn  the  stock  in  and  pasture 
it  off. 

FLORIDA   BEGGAR    WEED 

Florida  beggar  weed  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  but  has  been 
known  in  Florida  since  1832.  It  is  an  erect  plant,  growing  five  to 
ten  feet  high.  The  seeds  are  borne  in  jointed  pods,  covered  with 
short  prickles,  which  break  up  at  maturity  and  stick  to  anything 
with  which  they  come  in  contact. 

Florida  beggar  weed  is  adapted  only  to  Florida  and  the  Gulf 
Coast.  It  is  considered  valuable  as  a  soil  renovator,  due  to  its  large 
vigorous  growth,  but  also  makes  an  excellent  hay  if  cut  in  bloom. 
Two  crops  a  year  may  be  harvested.  The  seed  is  sown  alone  in  the 
spring  at  the  rate  of  six  to  ten  pounds  per  acre.  It  may  also  be  sown 
with  a  cultivated  crop,  such  as  corn,  and  after  the  corn  is  harvested 
the  beggar  weed  will  develop  a  crop  of  either  seed  or  forage. 


QUESTIONS  419 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  importance  of  red  clover,  giving  origin  and  early  history. 

2.  Where  is  it  grown  in  the  United  States? 

3.  Give  its  soil  requirements. 

4.  Why  is  culture  declining  in  some  places? 

5.  Describe  and  compare  mammoth  and  medium  red  clover. 

6.  Give  methods  of  seeding  red  clover. 

7.  Is  it  generally  sown  alone  or  in  mixtures? 

8.  Name  fertilizers   for  clover. 

9.  Why  is  it  suited  to  rotations? 

10.  Describe  the  roots. 

11.  State  proportions  of  stems  and  leaves. 

12.  What  is  the  best  time  to  harvest  red  clover? 

13.  What  is  "  brown  hay"? 

14.  Give  use  for  ensilage. 

15.  Describe  pollination. 

16.  How  is  it  grown  for  seed? 

17.  Give  average  yield  of  seed.    How  estimated? 

18.  State  color  of  seeds. 

19.  What  is  clover   sickness? 

20.  How  important  is  inoculation  ? 

21.  Compare  alsike  and  red  clover  in  character  of  plant. 

22.  In  climatic  and  soil  adaptations. 

23.  Give  its  special  use  as  forage  crop,. 

24.  Amount  of  seeds  sown  and  common  mixtures. 

25.  What  is  its  value  as  a  pasture  plant? 

26.  Compare  white  clover  with  alsike  clover  and  red  clover  as  to  character 

of  plant  and  soil  adaptation. 

27.  For  what  use  is  it  best  adapted? 

28.  State  means  by  which  it  persists  under  pasture. 

29.  Compare  the  three  types  of  sweet  clover. 

30.  Describe  its  habits  of  growth. 

31.  What  is  the  quality  of  sweet  clover  seed? 

32.  State  time  of  sowing. 

33.  Where  most  cultivated,  and  why? 

34.  What  are  its  soil  requirements? 

35.  What  gives  it  the  sweet  odor,  and  how  does  it  affect  the  feeding  value? 

36.  How  important  is  inoculation? 

37.  Describe  the  crimson  clover  plant  and  soil  adaptations. 

38.  Where  most  important  as  a  cultivated  crop  ? 

39.  How  utilized  as  green  manure? 

40.  Describe  appearance  of  bur  clovers. 

41.  Where  is  it  found  growing  wild? 

42.  What  are  its  principal  uses? 

43.  Describe  Japanese  clover. 

44.  To  what  region  is  it  best  adapted? 

45.  Give  its  habits  and  growth.     Culture. 

46.  What  is  its  principal  use? 

47.  Describe  the  Florida  velvet  bean  and  give  method  of  culture. 

48.  Describe  Florida  beggar  weed  and  methods  of  culture. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 

COW   PEAS,    SOY    BEANS,    FIELD    PEAS,    VETCHES, 

PEANUTS 

COW  PEAS 

Cow  PEAS  are  much  more  closely  related  to  the  bean  family  than 
peas  both  in  appearance  and  adaptation. 

Cow  peas  are  the  most  important  leguminous  crop  south  of  the 
Ohio  River.  They  are  of  tropical  origin  and  require  hot  weather 
for  best  growth.  They  are  also  of  great  value  as  green  manure  be- 
cause of  their  ability  to  grow  on  rather  poor  soil,  and  there  is  no 
crop  in  the  South  more  important  for  building  up  impoverished  land. 

Origin  and  History. — Cow  peas  (Fig.  180)  probably  originated 
in  tropical  Africa,  where  the  wild  form  is  now  found  very  commonly. 
They  were  extensively  cultivated  in  ancient  times,  the  seeds  being 
used  for  human  food  and  the  vine  for  stock  forage.  However,  since 
the  introduction  of  the  kidney  bean  from  America,  the  use  of  cow 
peas  as  human  food  has  declined.  Cow  peas  seem  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  at  least  by  1775,  and  were  quite  well 
known  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  as  far  north  as  Virginia  by  1800. 
From  the  first  they  have  generally  been  cultivated  for  forage  and 
green  manure  in  the  United  States. 

Classification. — The  cow  pea  is  extremely  variable  in  character. 
Many  varieties  have  a  long,  trailing  vine  and  an  indeterminate 
growth;  that  is,  they  continue  to  grow  until  killed  by  frost.  Cow 
peas  have  been  grouped  in  various  ways,  of  which  the  following  are 
examples : 

1.  According  to  habits  of  growth,  as  trailing,  bushy,  or  erect. 

2.  According  to  the  shape  of  the  seed  and  pod.     The  common 
cow  peas  are  known  as  kidneys,  while  another  form,  with  long, 
slender  pods  in  which  the  peas  are  closely  crowded  together,  are 
known  as  "  crowders." 

3.  According  to  time  of  ripening.     Those  that  mature  in  from 
seventy  to  eighty  days  are  known  as  early,  from  ninety  to  one  hun- 
dred days  as  medium,  and  all  that  require  more  than  one  hundred 

420 


BEST  KNOWN  VARIETIES 


421 


days  as  late.  However,  there  are  some  tropical  varieties  that  will 
not  mature  even  in  two  hundred  days. 

4.  Color  of  seeds  is  sometimes  used  in  classification,  but  the  vari- 
ation is  so  great  it  is  not  satisfactory.  Black,  white,  and  red  are 
the  dominant  colors,  but  most  varieties  are  mixtures  of  these  colors. 

Best  Known  Varieties. — Whippoorwitt  is  the  oldest  and  best 
known  variety  of  cow  peas,  and  it  is  probable  that  half  the  acreage  is 


Fio.   180. — Cow  peas  in  rows.     Seed  crop  ready  to  harvest. 

sown  to  this  variety.  It  is  seldom  erect  after  much  growth  is 
attained.  The  Iron  cow  pea  is  of  rather  recent  origin,  being  dis- 
covered in  South  Carolina  in  1888.  Its  most  important  quality  is 
resistance  to  both  the  wilt  disease  and  root  knot  disease,  and  is  rec- 
ommended to  grow  wherever  these  diseases  are  common.  New  Era 
is  a  popular  early  variety  of  the  bushy  type.  Oroit  is  said  to  be  the 
best  variety  for  growing  in  the  northern  States.  The  last  three 
varieties  are  more  erect  and  are  easily  harvested  for  hay. 


422  PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 

Adaptations. — Cow  peas  are  of  tropical  origin  and  very  sensitive 
to  frost.  They  will  not  grow  as  far  north  as  field  peas,  as  they  do 
very  poorly  in  a  climate  where  the  nights  are  cool.  In  general,  cow 
peas  are  less  cultivated  as  we  go  farther  northward  from  the  Ohio 
Eiver. 

They  are  adapted  to  a  very  wide  range  of  soils  and  show  great 
ability  to  produce  a  crop  on  poor  and  unproductive  soil.  As  they  are 
a  leguminous  crop  and  capable  of  adding  much  nitrogen  to  the  soil, 
they  therefore  become  of  great  importance  to  the  South  as  a  crop  to 
be  grown  on  poor  soils  and  turned  under  as  a  green  manure  crop. 

Cow  peas  also  do  well  on  soils  deficient  in  lime,  which  greatly 
increases  their  usefulness  as  soil  restorative  crops. 

Culture. — Cow  peas  are  sown  in  several  ways,  as  broadcast  in 
pure  cultures;  second,  in  rows  spaced  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches 
apart;  third,  with  standing  corn  and  also  sometimes  mixed  with 
other  plants. 

When  sown  alone,  they  are  frequently  sown  broadcast  or  drilled 
at  the  rate  of  one  to  two  bushels  per  acre.  This  is  a  common 
method  when  they  are  to  be  turned  under  for  green  manure. 

It  is  also  a  common  method  when  they  are  to  be  harvested  for  hay ; 
while  the  yield  of  seed  is  not  so  large  when  sown  broadcast  as  when 
planted  in  rows,  yet  considerable  seed  can  be  hand-picked  before  the 
crop  is  cut  for  hay. 

Planting  cow  peas  in  rows  about  three  feet  apart  is  gaining  in 
favor  as  a  general  practice.  Usually  about  one  peck  of  seed  per  acre 
is  sufficient,  and  will  require  from  two  to  three  cultivations.  When 
sown  in  rows,  usually  they  produce  a  very  much  heavier  seed  crop 
than  when  sown  broadcast,  and  in  many  cases  will  also  produce  a 
better  forage  crop. 

It  is  also  rather  a  common  practice  to  grow  cow  peas  with  field 
corn.  '  They  may  be  drilled  in  at  the  same  time  that  the  corn  is 
drilled,  or  their  planting  may  be  delayed  until  the  last  cultivation  of 
the  corn.  They  can  then  be  sown  broadcast  between  the  corn  rows, 
or  a  row  drilled  next  to  the  corn  rows.  The  latter  method  is  prob- 
ably the  best.  A  fairly  good  seed  crop  can  usually  be  harvested  in 
this  way,  and  the  cow  pea  vines  harvested  with  the  corn  fodder  as 
forage. 


HARVESTING  423 

Cow  peas  are  occasionally  sown  with  other  forage  crops,  such  as 
German  millet  or  sorghum.  By  mixing  in  this  way  with  another 
crop,  it  is  found  much  easier  to  cure  than  pure  cow  pea  forage. 

Time  of  Sowing. — Cow  peas,  being  hot-weather  plants,  should 
not  be  sown  until  the  ground  is  well  warmed  in  the  spring,  and  there 
is  no  danger  of  frosts.  In  the  southern  States,  planting  may  be 
continued  from  early  spring  up  to  August.  Usually  the  earlier 
plantings  produce  a  heavy  growth  of  forage,  while  the  later  plantings 
produce  the  largest  seed  crop. 

Inoculation  for  cow  peas  is  very  seldom  required.  While  they 
will  usually  do  bptter  when  the  soil  is  well  inoculated  with  the  proper 
bacteria,  it  is  very  seldom  that  the  crop  will  fail  for  lack  of  inocula- 


FIG.  181. — Seeds  of  cow  peas  on  left  and  soy  beans  on  right. 

tion.  In  fact,  in  some  cases  inoculation  has  shown  very  little 
benefit. 

Harvesting. — Cow  pea  hay  is  quite  difficult  to  cure,  for  the 
reason  that  the  stems  are  large  and  dry  very  slowly,  while  the  leaves 
are  thin,  dry  rapidly,  and  are  apt  to  be  lost.  '  It  is  usually  considered 
best  to  wait  until  the  first  pods  are  ripened,  or  even  a  week  or  two 
later,  as  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  cure  plants  when  very  green 
than  when  they  are  partly  mature.  Many  devices  for  drying  out 
the  hay  have  been  invented  by  the  growers,  but  in  most  cases  it  is 
best  to  cure  the  hay  as  well  as  possible  in  small  shocks  on  the  land, 
and  then  put  up  in  very  narrow  stacks. 

The  yields  of  hay  are  extremely  variable,  depending  on  the 
climatic  and  soil  conditions,  but  two  to  three  tons  per  acre  of  cured 
hay  arc  expected  under  fair  conditions.  The  seed  crop  is  even  more 


424  PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 

variable  than  the  forage  crop.  Generally  when  conditions  are  favor- 
able for  developing  a  large  growth  of  vine,  the  seed  crop  is  small, 
while  the  best  seed  crop  is  ordinarily  obtained  when  the  weather  is 
too  dry  or  the  soil  a  little  too  thin  for  the  best  forage  crop.  Under 
favorable  conditions  for  a  seed  crop,  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  per  acre 
are  harvested,  but  the  yield  will  vary  from  this  all  the  way  down  to 
nothing  (Fig.  181). 

Insects  and  Diseases. — Two  species  of  weevil  give  a  great  deal 
of  trouble  by  destroying  the  stored  seed.  These  weevils  lay  their 
eggs  on  the  pods,  or  when  seeds  are  in  storage  directly  on  the 
seeds.  The  young  larva  hatches,  finds  its  way  into  the  seed,  and 
finally  matures  into  an  adult  in  from  twenty  to  thirty  days.  They 
continue  reproducing  until  all  the  peas  have  been  destroyed.  The 
weevil  can  be  destroyed  by  putting  the  seed  in  a  tight  room  where  the 
temperature  can  be  raised  to  130°  F.  for  twenty  minutes.  Also  the 
seed  can  be  put  into  an  air-tight  bin  and  treated  with  carbon  bisul- 
fide. Carbon  bisulfide  should  be  put  in  a  shallow  pan  and  set  on 
top  of  the  seed,  when  it  will  quickly  vaporize,  and  being  heavier  than 
air,  the  gas  will  soon  fill  all  the  spaces  between  the  seeds.  Two  to 
three  pounds  of  carbon  bisulfide  are  required  for  each  1000  cubic 
feet  of  space. 

The  two  most  common  diseases  are  root  knot  and  wilt.  The  root 
knot  is  caused  by  a  small  nematode,  and  the  wilt  by  a  form  of 
fusarium  which  attacks  the  roots.  No  remedy  has  been  found  except 
to  grow  disease-resistant  varieties. 

SOY    BEANS 

Soy  beans  (Figs.  182  and  183)  are  one  of  the  oldest  cultivated 
plants  in  eastern  Asia,  especially  in  Manchuria  and  Japan.  They 
are  one  of  the  most  productive  legumes  in  seed,  probably  not  being 
exceeded  by  any  other,  with  the  possible  exception  of  field  beans. 
In  the  Orient  they  are  extensively  used  for  human  food,  but  in  this 
country  they  have  so  far  been  cultivated  principally  for  stock  feed. 

Origin  and  History.— A  wild  plant,  closely  related  to  the 
cultivated  soy  bean,  is  found  growing  throughout  Japan  and  Man- 
churia, but  differing  from  it  in  being  a  trailing  vine,  while  the  soy 


ORIGIN  AND  HISTORY 


425 


bean  is  an  upright,  bushy  plant.    The  cultivated  soy  bean  is  found  in 
this  same  region  and  also  China  and  north  India.    Here  the  beans  are 


FIG.   182. — Soy  bean  plant. 


used  extensively  as  human  food,  and  also  for  the  manufacture  of  oil. 
At  present  not  only  the  oil  but  the  oil  cake  and  great  quantities  of 
the  beans  are  exported  to  Europe  and  America.  The  crop  was  intro- 


426 


PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 


duced  into  the  United  States  as  early  as  1829,  but  received  little 
attention  until  about  1890.  It  was  the  need  of  a  drought-resistant 
legume  for  the  western  States  that  attracted  most  attention  to  soy 
beans  between  the  years  1890  and  1900.  Since  1900  some  300  varie- 
ties have  been  imported,  mostly  from  Asia,  and  given  trial  in  the 
United  States. 

Varieties. — The  soy  bean  plant  has  a  strong,  upright  habit  of 


FIG.  183. — Soy  beans  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  for  seed  or  forage. 

growth,  with  little  tendency  to  produce  vines.  It  has  a  determinate 
growth,  that  is,  the  plant  and  seeds  all  ripen  at  the  same  time,  in 
which  it  differs  from  the  cow  pea.  The  pods  usually  grow  in  thick 
clusters  near  the  main  stem.  The  height  of  the  plant  varies  from 
eighteen  inches  to  sixty  inches,  and  varieties  vary  in  maturing  season 
from  sixty  to  two  hundred  days.  In  all  varieties  the  plant  is 
decidedly  hairy  on  the  stem,  leaves,  and  pods. 


DESCRIPTION  427 

Soy  beans  have  not  been  grown  long  enough  so  that  all  the  best 
varieties  are  known  to  each  region.  South  of  the  Ohio  Elver  to 
North  Carolina  it  has  generally  been  found  that  the  large,  rather 
late  varieties  are  most  productive.  Of  these  the  Mammoth,  a  late, 
large-growing  variety,  three  to  five  feet  tall,  is  the  most  popular. 
Hollybrook  and  Haberland,  both  one  to  two  weeks  earlier  'than 
Mammoth,  are  also  grown  to  a  less  extent.  A  little  north,  or  through 
the  Ohio  River  valley,  somewhat  earlier  varieties  are  required.  Ito 
San  and  Pekin,  both  maturing  in  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
days,  are  very  satisfactory  for  this  region.  In  the  general  region 
north  of  the  Ohio  River,  and  including  most  of  the  corn  belt,  the 
Wilson  variety  and  the  Guelph,  also  known  as  Medium  Green,  have 
given  best  results.  Of  the  two,  Guelph  is  probably  better  for  forage. 

Adaptations. — Soy  beans,  like  cow  peas,  are  hot-weather  plants, 
and  do  rather  poorly  wherever  either  the  days  or  nights  are  cool. 
The  short  growing  season  of  early  varieties,  however,  enables  them 
to  be  grown  profitably  at  least  three  hundred  miles  north  of  cow 
peas.  While  the  cow  pea  region  extends  northward  about  the  Ohio 
River,  soy  beans  are  profitably  grown  as  far  north  as  Ontario, 
Canada.  While  soy  beans  do  well  in  humid  climates,  they  are  also 
remarkably  drought-resistant,  and  it  is  their  ability  to  produce  a 
fair  crop  of  seeds  under  the  hot  and  rather  dry  summer  climate  of 
Kansas  that  first  stimulated  their  culture  in  this  country. 

Soy  beans,  like  cow  peas,  are  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils  and 
are  of  special  value,  due  to  their  ability  to  produce  a  fair  crop  on 
rather  poor  soils,  especially  soils  of  a  sandy  character.  While  soy 
beans  are  grown  throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States, 
they  at  present  seem  to  have  found  a  most  important  place  in  agri- 
culture in  about  the  same  region  as  crimson  clover,  which  might  be 
roughly  defined  as  lying  between  the  red  clover  region  on  the  north 
and  the  cow  pea  region  on  the  south.  They  are  of  greatest 
importance  from  New  Jersey  and  Maryland  westward. 

Description.— Soy  beans  are  characterized  by  their  stiff  upright 
habit  of  growth,  with  little  tendency  to  produce  vines,  except  in  a 
few  varieties.  They  have  a  strictly  determinate  growth,  that  is,  the 
plant  and  seeds  ripen  at  the  same  time,  in  which  they  are  very 


428  PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 

different  from  cow  peas  that  continue  to  grow  and  blossom  until 
killed  by  frost.  The  soy  bean  blossoms  are  minute  and  borne  in 
dense  clusters  near  the  main  stem.  The  flower,  like  that  of  the 
cow  pea,  is  strictly  self-fertilized,  and  therefore  is  not  at  all  like  red 
clover,  dependent  on  the  agency  of  insects  to  produce  seed.  Soy 
beans  are  much  more  reliable  in  seed  production  than  cow  peas.  With 
cow  peas  any  condition  of  climate  and  soil  that  tends  to  produce  a 
rank  growth  of  foliage  usually  retards  the  seed  production,  but  soy 
beans  produce  heavy  crops  of  seeds  under  practically  all  soil  and 
climatic  conditions.  In  general,  however,  soy  beans  are  less  adapted 
to  forage  production  than  the  cow  peas. 

Culture  for  Seed  Production.— When  soy  beans  are  grown 
principally  for  the  seed  crop,  they  are  usually  planted  in  rows  from 
two  to  four  feet  apart,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  plant  and  con- 
venience in  cultivation.  The  smaller  varieties,  under  two  feet  in 
height,  will  have  plenty  of  room  for  full  development  if  planted  in 
rows  two  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  two  to  three  inches  apart  in  the 
row,  while  the  very  largest  varieties,  such  as  Mammoth,  should  be 
planted  in  rows  from  three  to  four  feet  apart,  and  plants  about  three 
inches  apart  in  the  row. 

Soy  beans  may  be  planted  any  time  after  the  ground  is  well 
warmed  up  in  the  spring.  The  seed  rots  very  easily  if  planted  in  cold 
soil.  Ordinarily  they  should  be  planted  a  week  or  two  weeks  later 
than  corn.  When  grown  in  rows,  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  of  seed  per 
acre  are  sufficient.  Clean  culture  must  be  practised  until  the  pods 
are  well  set.  Soy  beans  usually  ripen  quite  uniformly,  but  generally 
the  first  pods  are  ripe  from  two  to  three  weeks  before  the  later  ones 
mature.  As  the  beans  shell  and  drop  to  the  ground  quite  easily  when 
they  ripen,  it  is  the  general  custom  to  begin  harvesting  when  the  first 
pods  begin  to  open.  If  harvested  during  damp  weather,  they  can  be 
cut  and  bound  with  a  self-binder.  If  this  machine  is  found  to  shell 
out  too  many  beans,  the  next  best  method  is  to  use  the  regular  bean 
harvester.  The  beans  should  be  cured  in  very  small  shocks  in  the 
field,  handling  them  mostly  on  damp  days  or  while  the  dew  is  on. 
The  average  yield  is  from  fifteen  to  forty  bushels  to  the  acre,  but 
maximum  yields  of  forty  to  fifty  bushels  are  sometimes  secured. 


INOCULATION  429 

Growing  Soy  Beans  for  Forage. — For  forage,  soy  beans  are 
grown  in  rows  and  cultivated  (Fig.  183)  or  sown  thickly  with  the 
grain  drill.  When  grown  in  rows  primarily  for  forage,  they  are 
planted  about  twice  as  thick  as  when  grown  for  seed ;  that  is,  forty 
to  sixty  pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre.  When  broadcasted  or 
sown  thickly  with  the  drill,  from  six  to  twelve  pecks  per  acre  are 
usually  sown.  It  is  best  to  cut  them  when  the  pods  are  well  formed 
but  not  ripe,  as  the  stems  become  quite  woody  as  the  plant  matures. 
Soy  beans  are  much  easier  to  cure  into  hay  than  cow  peas.  For  this 
reason,  they  are  sometimes  grown  with  cow  peas  as  forage. 

Mixed  with  Corn. — In  the  northern  States  where  corn  is  used 
extensively  for  silage,  many  farmers  now  grow  soy  beans  to  mix 
with  the  corn  in  the  silo.  In  some  cases  it  is  found  best  to  grow 
the  soy  beans  separately  and  mix  the  two  as  the  silage  is  being  cut, 
at  the  rate  of  about  one  load  of  soy  beans  forage  to  two  loads  of  corn. 
In  other  cases,  it  has  been  found  quite  practical  to  grow  the  corn 
and  soy  beans  together.  If  equal  quantities  of  soy  beans  and  corn  be 
mixed  in  the  corn  planter  box,  a  fairly  even  distribution  can  be 
secured,  if  the  precaution  is  taken  to  keep  them  well  mixed.  There 
is  some  disadvantage  in  that  the  planting  can  not  take  place  before 
the  ground  is  well  warmed,  as  soy  beans  will  not  do  relatively  as  well 
as  corn  in  cold,  wet  soil.  Also  there  is  a  little  more  difficulty  in  giv- 
ing clean  cultivation  to  the  corn,  as  the  soy  beans  grow  somewhat 
more  slowly.  If  the  corn  is  very  thick  and  grows  vigorously,  it  is 
also  apt  to  smother  out  the  soy  beans.  Some  have  found  it  more 
practical  to  plant  the  corn  and  soy  beans  separately  at  about  the  rate 
of  two  rows  of  corn  to  one  row  of  soy  beans. 

The  soy  bean  forage  improves  the  silage  by  making  it  richer  in 
protein  matter.  This  mixture  gives  a  well-balanced  ration  and 
reduces  the  feed  bill  for  concentrated  protein. 

Inoculation.  — While  soy  beans,  like  other  legumes,  have  nodules 
and  a  particular  form  of  bacteria  associated  with  them,  yet  it  is  rare 
that  they  fail  for  lack  of  inoculation.  They  will  usually  do  quite 
well  on  any  productive  soil,  even  when  no  trace  of  nodules  can  be 
found  on  the  roots.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  inoculation  is  quite 
important  on  poor  soils,  especially  if  sandy.  In  experiments  made 


430  PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 

at  the  Michigan  Station,  it  was  found  that  plants  grew  quite  well 
without  inoculation,  but  the  inoculated  plants  were  found  to  be  much 
richer  in  nitrogen.  It  is  generally  considered  advisable  to  inoculate 
to  secure  best  results. 

Utilizing  the  Crop. — Soy  bean  seed  is  very  rich  in  protein, 
usually  carrying  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent.  The  ground 
soy  bean  meal  is  therefore  an  excellent  protein  concentrate  to  use  in 
grain  rations  for  live  stock.  The  seed  is  also  very  rich  in  oil,  and  the 
manufacture  of  soy  bean  oil  is  an  important  industry  in  Manchuria. 
The  oil  can  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paints  and  also  for  culinary 
purposes.  The  residue,  after  the  oil  is  extracted,  known  as  oil  cake, 
is  very  rich  in  protein,  and  used  for  stock  feed.  In  the  Orient,  the 
seeds  are  used  extensively  as  human  food,  and  also  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  well-known  suey  sauce. 

The  forage  cut  green  is  easily  cured  into  hay,  although  the  hay  is 
generally  considered  somewhat  coarse.  It  is  readily  eaten  by  all 
kinds  of  stock  and  considered  about  as  valuable  as  good  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay. 

FIELD    PEAS 

There  is  very  little  difference  between  what  is  known  as  the  field 
pea  and  the  common  garden  pea.  The  garden  pea,  however,  usually 
has  white  flowers  and  light-colored  seed,  while  many  of  the  field  peas 
have  colored  flowers  and  usually  rather  yellow  seeds.  Peas  are 
found  growing  wild  throughout  the  Mediterranean  district,  and  seem 
to  have  been  cultivated  from  very  early  times  principally  for  human 
food.  Field  peas  vary  in  height  from  two  to  five  feet ;  the  stem  is 
weak,  and  if  planted  thin,  the  vines  are  usually  prostrate  on  the 
ground.  When  field  peas  are  sown  thickly  they  usually  cover  the 
ground  with  a  mass  of  vines  from  one  to  two  feet  deep. 

Adaptations. — Field  peas  are  all  summer  annuals,  but  are 
resistant  to  frosts  and  even  light  freezing.  They  can  be  grown  as 
winter  crops  in  regions  where  heavy  freezing  never  occurs.  In  the 
region,  however,  where  they  are  grown,  they  are  always  sown  in  the 
spring. 

Field  peas  are  very  partial  to  cool  summer  weather,  and  are 
seldom  grown  south  of  New  York  State  or  Minnesota,  except  in 


MIXTURES  431 

mountain  valleys  at  high  elevations.  At  present  they  are  grown 
extensively  in  Canada,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan,  and  their  culture 
is  developing  through  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  to  southern 
Colorado  and  also  in  the  northwestern  States. 

Field  peas  grow  on  practically  all  types  of  soil,  and  are  one  of 
the  best  crops  for  heavy  clay.  While  they  do  best  on  a  limestone 
soil,  yet  they  have  a  wide  range  of  adaptation  and  will  do  well  on 
soils  quite  deficient  in  lime. 

Culture. — About  a  dozen  varieties  have  attained  importance. 
The  most  popular  and  best  early  varieties  in  Canada  are  Arthur, 


FIG.  184. — Mixture  of  field  peas  with  oats. 

Golden  Vine,  and  Chancellor.  For  medium  to  late,  the  Marrow- 
fats and  Prussian  Blue. 

Field  peas  are  usually  sown  early,  or  at  about  the  same  time 
that  ordinary  spring  grains  are  sown.  Later  sowings  may  be  made 
for  several  weeks,  but  usually  the  best  yield  is  secured  from  the 
earliest  sowings.  From  one  to  three  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  are 
sown,  according  to  size  of  seed,  and  size  of  plant.  The  seed  is  large 
and  should  be  covered  two  to  three  inches  deep. 

Mixtures. — Field  peas  are  not  generally  sown  alone,  as  the  vines 
are  so  prostrate  that  it  is  difficult  to  harvest  them.  Also  the  yield 


432  PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 

of  field  peas  alone  is  generally  not  more  than  half  as  much  as  when 
sown  with  a  cereal.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  oats  are  the  best  cereal 
with  which  to  sow  field  peas  (Fig.  184).  Usually  equal  quantities 
by  measure  of  oats  and  peas  are  sown,  the  total  amount  of  the 
mixture  varying  from  three  to  four  bushels  per  acre. 

The  yield  of  cured  forage,  when  sown  alone,  is  usually  about  one 
to  one  and  one-half  tons  per  acre,  but  when  mixed  with  oats,  two  to 
three  tons  per  acre  are  expected.  Other  grains,  such  as  barley  and 
spring  wheat,  are  sometimes  used,  but  do  not  make  so  satisfactory  a 
forage  as  the  oats.  Seed  yields  of  field  peas  usually  vary  from  twenty 
to  forty  bushels  per  acre,  with  maximum  yields  of  about  eighty 
bushels. 

Utilization. — A  mixture  of  field  peas  and  oats  is  considered  the 
best  temporary  forage  crop  for  all  the  northern  States  and  southern 
Canada.  The  forage  is  easily  cured,  and  an  excellent  feed.  The 
crop  is  sometimes  put  in  the  silo,  but  does  not  make  as  good  a  grade 
of  silage  as  corn,  as  it  is  likely  to  be  somewhat  more  acid.  In  the 
mountain  valleys  of  Colorado,  peas  are  used  extensively  as  pasture 
to  fatten  sheep  or  hogs.  The  peas  are  sown  and  allowed  to  mature 
before  the  live  stock  is  turned  in.  In  Canada,  oats  and  peas  are 
very  often  threshed  together,  and  the  mixture  makes  an  excellent 
grain  for  stock. 

Pea  Weevil.  — The  only  serious  enemy  of  the  field  pea  crop  is  a 
small  beetle  known  as  the  pea  weevil.  The  eggs  of  this  weevil  are 
usually  laid  on  the  pods,  where  they  hatch  and  the  larva  finds  its  way 
into  the  young  peas.  The  larvae  grow  to  maturity  in  the  pea  and 
remain  there  until  they  emerge  into  full-grown  insects.  Only  one 
brood  is  produced  each  year,  and  they  do  not  attack  mature  peas. 
The  beetles  can  be  destroyed  by  storing  the  seed  in  tight  sacks  until 
they  have  all  emerged  and  are  starved  to  death.  This  usually  means, 
however,  holding  the  seed  over  an  extra  season.  It  is  probably  better 
to  destroy  the  beetles  by  placing  the  seed  in  tight  receptacles  and 
treating  with  carbon  bisulfide.  When  pea  weevils  become  very 
Injurious,  it  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  discontinue  the  culture 
of  peas  for  two  or  three  years  until  the  beetles  have  disappeared. 


CULTURE  433 

VETCHES 

Wild  vetches  are  very  commonly  distributed  throughout  the 
world,  and  botanists  recognize  at  least  120  kinds.  Several  vetches 
have  been  brought  into  cultivation,  but  only  two  have  received  ex- 
tensive culture,  namely,  the  common  or  spring  vetch  or  tares  ( Vicia 
sativa)  and  the  hairy  or  winter  vetch  or  sand  vetch  ( Vicia  villosa) 
(Fig.  185).  Another  member  of  the  same  family  (Vicia  faba)  is 
never  known  as  a  vetch,  but  is  usually  called  horse  bean  or  Windsor 
bean. 

Common  vetch  is  an  annual,  but  quite  frost-resistant,  and  can 
be  sown  in  the  fall  as  a  winter  annual  in  all  regions  having  a  mild 
winter  where  only  light  freezing  takes  place.  In  more  severe  climates 
it  is  sown  in  early  spring.  It  is  a  prostrate  vine,  usually  three  to 
five  feet  long,  with  tendrils  at  the  ends  of  all  the  leaves,  and  purple 
flowers  borne  in  pairs.  It  is  found  growing  wild  in  southern  Europe, 
and  has  probably  been  cultivated  since  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era. 

Adaptations. — Spring  vetch  requires  a  cool  climate  and  will  not 
withstand  the  hot  summer  heat  of  the  southern  States.  In  the 
North  it  is  sown  in  the  spring,  but  in  the  southern  States  and  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  it  is  usually  sown  in  the  fall.  It  grows  slowly  during 
the  fall  and  winter  months,  makes  a  rapid  growth  in  the  spring, 
and  is  usually  harvested  before  the  heat  of  summer.  It  is  best 
adapted  for  culture  where  it  can  be  fall  sown,  and  in  such  climates 
is  often  preferred  to  the  hairy  vetch,  as  it  is  more  productive.  In  the 
North,  however,  the  hairy  vetch  is  to  be  preferred,  as  spring  vetch 
does  not  make  sufficient  yield  when  spring  sown  in  the  North. 

Vetch  can  be  grown  in  any  well-drained  soil,  but  has  a  preference 
for  the  lighter  types.  Vetch  also  has  the  merit  of  growing  in  soils 
quite  low  in  lime  content,  which  is  a  common  fault  of  the  poorer 
soils  throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  Vetches  are 
also  better  adapted  to  sandy  soils  than  most  of  our  cultivated  plants. 

Culture. — While  several  varieties  of  common  vetch  are  recog- 
nized in  Europe,  we  know  little  about  the  different  varieties  in 
America  and  generally  recognize  only  the  one.  In  this  country  we 
usually  call  it  spring  vetch  in  contrast  with  hairy  vetch,  which  is 
28 


434 


PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 


FIG.   185. — Hairy  vetch. 


designated  as  winter  vetch,  but  this  is  not  the  case  in  Europe,  where 
there  are  both  winter  and  spring  varieties  of  the  common  vetch. 
Common  vetch  is  usually  sown  in  the  fall  either  alone  or  with  a 


HAIRY  VETCH  435 

fall-sown  grain  crop.  The  time  of  sowing  varies  from  September  to 
November.  When  sown  alone,  about  one  bushel  of  seed  per  acre  is 
re%iired,  but  under  unfavorable  conditions  this  may  be  increased 
as  high  as  two  bushels  per  acre.  In  mixtures  it  is  most  commonly 
sown  with  oats  at  the  rate  of  thirty  to  sixty  pounds  of  vetch  seed 
with  equal  weight  of  oats.  The  oats  and  vetch  will  mature  at  about 
the  same  time  the  following  season,  and  can  be  cut  together  for  forage 
or  permitted  to  ripen  and  threshed  together  for  grain. 

Harvesting. — Vetch  sown  in  pure  culture  is  very  difficult  to 
harvest,  as  it  forms  a  dense,  viny  mass  not  easy  to  separate.  When 
allowed  to  ripen  for  the  seed  crop,  it  shells  so  easily  that  the  horses 
or  machinery  should  not  run  over  the  cut  vetch.  It  is  the  general 
custom  to  have  two  men  follow  the  mowing  machine  and  roll  the  cut 
swath  out  of  the  way. 

For  hay  or  forage,  it  should  be  cut  in  full  bloom.  It  is  not  at 
all  difficult  to  cure,  though  some  difficulty  is  experienced  in  handling 
it,  due  to  its  viny  nature.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  it  is  so  com- 
monly grown  with  a  grain  crop.  The  grain  crop  not  only  supports 
the  vetch  vines,  making  the  crop  much  easier  to  handle  and  cure,  but 
almost  as  good  yields  of  vetch  seed  will  be  secured  in  the  mixture  as 
when  sown  alone. 

Pasture. — Vetch  makes  an  excellent  winter  pasture.  If  desired, 
the  animals  may  be  taken  off  in  the  spring  and  the  crop  harvested,  or 
they  may  be  continued  on  the  pasture  till  midsummer.  Vetch  and 
burr  clover  probably  make  the  two  best  winter  pasture  plants  for  the 
southern  States. 

Vetch  makes  an  excellent  cover  crop,  either  to  be  plowed  under 
as  green  manure  or  in  orchards.  It  can  usually  be  plowed  under 
early  enough  in  the  spring  to  replant  the  land  to  another  crop,  such  as 
corn  or  cotton. 

Vetch  seed  (Fig.  186)  is  produced  extensively  in  western  Oregon. 
The  average  yield  is  about  twelve  bushels  per  acre,  but  yields  of 
twenty  to  twenty-five  bushels  are  not  uncommon.  At  present  about 
half  of  the  seed  used  in  this  country  is  imported  from  Europe. 

Hairy  vetch  is  also  known  as  Eussian  vetch,  sand  vetch,  and  in 
the  United  States  very  commonly  as  winter  vetch.  Hairy  vetch  is  a 


436  PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 

biennial  or  winter  annual,  making  a  slow  growth  the  first  year,  but  a 
rapid,  heavy  growth  the  second  year,  reaching  maturity  in  the 
northern  States  during  July.  It  is  found  growing  wild  through- 
out north  Europe,  where  it  was  first  brought  into  cultivation.  At- 
tention was  first  called  to  its  culture  in  the  United  States  about  1886. 
Adaptations. — Hairy  vetch  is  very  hardy  and  is  rarely  known  to 
winter-kill  in  northern  United  States  or  southern  Canada.  Hairy 
vetch  will  not  do  well  under  high  summer  temperatures,  and  is  prob- 
ably best  adapted  to  the  region  north  of  the  Ohio  River,  while  com- 
mon vetch  is  probably  best  for  the  southern  States.  Hairy  vetch  is 


FIG.   186. — Seeds  of  common  vetch  on  left,  and  hairy  vetch  on  right  (enlarged). 

generally  considered  very  drought-resistant,  especially  on  sandy, 
coastal  plain  soils. 

Hairy  vetch  grows  well  on  practically  all  productive  soils.  Its 
success  on  sandy  soils  is  well  known  and  gives  it  the  name  of  sand 
vetch.  It  is  probably  the  best  legume  in  the  northern  States  as  a 
restorative  crop  to  be  plowed  under  for  green  manure  on  sandy  soils. 

Culture. — Hairy  vetch  is  commonly  sown  in  the  fall  with  rye 
or  wheat,  usually  at  the  rate  of  about  thirty  pounds  of  vetch  to  one 
bushel  of  grain  per  acre.  When  sown  alone,  sixty  pounds  per  acre  are 
required.  It  is  usually  sown  with  grain  because  its  heavy  twining 
vines  are  difficult  to  harvest  when  sown  alone.  When  sown  with 
rye,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  harvest  with  the  rye,  and  after 
the  two  are  threshed  together,  the  seed  of  the  vetch  is  separated  out. 


NARBONNE  VETCH  437 

As  a  green  manure  crop,  winter  vetch  is  very  commonly  sown 
with  rye,  to  be  plowed  under  the  following  spring.  It  has  also  been 
found  very  practical  to  sow  it  with  a  spring  grain  like  oats  for  the 
same  purpose.  After  the  oats  are  harvested,  it  makes  a  very  good 
fall  growth  and  comes  on  very  early  the  next  spring,  in  time  to  be 
plowed  under  for  a  cultivated  crop,  such  as  corn  or  potatoes. 

Inoculation  of  the  soil  for  vetch  has  not  usually  been  found 
necessary.  Natural  inoculation  seems  to  be  present,  probably  due  to 
wild  vetches  which  are  common  in  most  cultivated  soils.  However, 
if  no  nodules  can  be  found  on  the  roots,  it  is  considered  best  to 
inoculate  to  secure  good  yields. 

Harvesting. — For  forage  purposes,  vetch  should  be  cut  when  in 
full  bloom.  For  seed,  it  is  allowed  to  become  ripe  and  handled  very 
much  as  common  vetch.  For  seed  purposes,  it  is  very  commonly 
sown  with  rye  and  the  two  harvested  together.  Average  yields  vary 
from  six  to  ten  bushels  to  the  acre,  with  maximum  yields  of  about 
twenty  bushels. 

Vetch  seeds  are  quite  commonly  mixed  and  are  difficult  to  tell 
apart.  Hairy  vetch  seeds  are  smaller  and  very  much  darker  in  color 
than  common  vetch.  Common  vetch  seeds  are  usually  gray  or  some- 
what mottled.  The  seed  of  common  vetch,  when  crushed,  has  an 
orange-yellow  color,  while  hairy  vetch  is  a  pale  yellow. 

Other  Vetches. — The  horse  bean,  or  Windsor  bean,  is  very 
different  in  appearance  from  the  two  vetches  just  described,  and 
will  not  be  taken  as  at  all  related  by  an  ordinary  observer.  The 
horse  bean  is  a  strong,  upright,  coarse-growing  plant,  with  large 
seeds  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  dwarf 
varieties  usually  grow  about  two  feet  high,  and  the  large  varieties 
about  four  feet  high.  Horse  beans  are  grown  only  in  a  cool  and 
humid  summer  climate.  They  will  very  seldom  succeed  well  even  in 
northern  United  States  or  southern  Canada,  but  are  extensively  grown 
throughout  northern  Europe.  The  beans  are  used  as  human  food, 
either  cooked  green  or  when  mature,  and  also  make  an  excellent 
stock  feed  to  be  mixed  with  cereals. 

Narbonne  vetch  is  found  growing  wild  in  southern  Europe,  re- 


438  PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 

sembles  somewhat  the  horse  bean,  and  is  thought  by  some  to  be  the 
wild  form.  It  is  cultivated  only  to  a  limited  extent. 

Narrow-leaved  vetch  and  purple  vetch  are  similar  to  common 
vetch  in  their  general  characters.  Both  these  vetches  are  little 
known,  but  are  probably  just  as  valuable  as  common  vetch  and 
adapted  to  about  the  same  climate  and  soil  conditions.  They  have 
given  excellent  results  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Ervil  or  bitter  vetch  has  long  been  cultivated  in  Europe  and 
Asia.  It  is  similar  in  habit  to. common  vetch,  and  succeeds  well  in 
the  South  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Woolly  pod  vetch  is  very  similar  in  habits  and  character  to 
hairy  vetch,  but  is  earlier  maturing. 

Vetch-like  Plants.— Several  species  of  the  genus  Latliyrus  are 
cultivated  in  a  limited  way  in  Europe,  and  all  have  been  found  to 
grow  well  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  Tangier  pea  is  a  tall  growing 
annual,  with  beautiful  flowers,  frequently  grown  as  an  ornamental. 
The  Oclirus  is  similar  in  habit,  but  has  a  peculiar  foliage  of  flattened 
petioles  and  only  a  few  true  leaflets.  The  culture  of  both  is  similar 
to  that  of  spring  vetch. 

PEANUT 

The  peanut  (Arachis  Jiypogea)   belongs  to  the  great  group  of 
plants  known  as  legumes.     It  is  one  of  the  Papilionacece  and  is  more 
closely  related  to  the  peas  than  any  other  legume.     It  could  be  more  • 
properly  called  ground  pea  than  a  peanut. 

Origin  and  History  of  Peanuts. — It  is  generally  believed  that 
cultivated  peanuts  had  their  origin  in  South  America,  probably 
Brazil,  although  there  is  some  evidence  that  there  may  have  also 
been  forms  in  Africa.  It  is  generally  believed,  however,  that  the 
cultivated  peanut  was  introduced  from  South  America  to  Europe. 
Peanut  culture  began  much  earlier  in  the  Old  World,  -  especially 
north  Africa  and  India,  than  it  did  in  the  United  States.  Previous 
to  the  Civil  War  peanuts  were  cultivated  in  a  small  way  in  the  South, 
principally  in  one  district  of  Virginia.  Since  1870,  however,  their 
culture  has  developed  very  rapidly,  and  almost  doubled  from  the 
period  1899-1909. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PLANT 


439 


Where  Peanuts  Are  Grown. — At  present  peanuts  are  culti- 
vated as  a  commercial  crop  a  few  hundred  miles  north  of  the  cotton 
belt  (Fig.  187).  Eastern  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  have  always 
led  in  the  cultivation  of  the  crop,  and  these  two  States  produce  more 
than  half  the  total  crop  in  the  United  States.  The  following  table 


FIG.  187. — Map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  area  adapted  to  the  production  of  pea- 
nuts.    (From  Farmers'  Bulletin  356.) 

gives  the  production  in  bushels  of  the  leading  States  and  the  per  cent 
of  increase  during  the  ten  years  from  1899—1909 : 

Production  of  Peanuts  in  the  United  States 


States 

1909 
Bushels 

1899 
Bushels 

Increase 
Per  cent 

United  States  

19,415,816 

11,964,109 

62.3 

North  Carolina  

5,980,919 

3,460,439 

72.8 

Virginia 

4  284  340 

3,713,347 

154 

Georgia 

2,569,787 

1,435,775 

790 

Florida 

2,315,089 

967,927  • 

1390 

Alabama.  . 

1,573,796 

1,021,708 

54.0 

Texas  

1,074,998 

184,860 

481.5 

Description  of  the  Plant. — The  peanut  plant  is  a  vine,  which 
may  be  long  and  prostrate  in  some  varieties,  or  short  and  upright  in 


440 


PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 


others  (Fig.  188).  The  blossoms  are  borne  in  the  leaf  axils  in  the 
branches  that  lie  on  the  ground.  The  flowers  are  small,  yellow  in 
color,  each  one  borne  on  the  end  of  a  short  stem.  When  the  blossom 
has  faded,  the  stem  bends  downward  and  begins  to  elongate,  pushing 
the  sharp-pointed  ovary  into  the  soil.  If  it  is  prevented  for  any 


Fio.  188. — Three  stages  in  development  of  the  peanut:    C,  the  blossom;  B,  the  "peg"  just 
entering  the  soil;  A,  the  peanut  pod. 


FIG.  189. — The  peanut  plant,  Virginia  running  variety.      (From  U.  S.  Farmers'  Bulletin  25.) 

reason  from  entering  the  soil,  the  ovary  withers  and  no  pod  will  be 
produced.  The  pod  usually  bears  two  seeds,  though  in  some  varie- 
ties five  or  six  are  developed. 

Classification  of  Varieties. — Only  five  or  six  common  varieties 
are  found  in  cultivation.  Virginia  Bunch  and  Virginia  Runner 
(Fig.  189)  are  two  very  similar  varieties,  except  the  former  is  an 


COMPOSITION  OF  PEANUTS 


III 


upright,  short  vine  variety,  and  the  latter  has  long,  creeping  stems. 
The  bunch  variety  is  the  one  most  extensively  cultivated.  It  is 
I'jisitT  to  cultivate  the  upright  bunch  form  rather  than  the  prostrate 
type,  and  also  much  easier  to  harvest,  as  the  pods  are  clustered  about 
the  base  of  the  plant,  while  in  the  Virginia  Runner  type  the  pods  are 
scattered  along  the  prostrate  stem.  In  both  varieties  the  pods  are 
large,  and  the  weight  of  a  bushel  is  about  twenty-two  pounds. 

North  Carolina  is  a  variety  very  similar  to  the  Virginia  Runner, 
but  both  the  plant  and  the  pod  are  somcwlnil  smaller. 

Spanish  is  a  small-podded  variety,  with  upright,  bushy  vines  (Fig. 


A  B 

Fia.  190.— Two  types  of  peanuts:    A,  a  large  Virginia  type;    B,  small  Spanish  type. 

190).  Spanish  is  the  best  variety  to  grow  for  forage  on  account  of 
the  upright  vine,  and  is  generally  most  productive  in  pods.  It  is 
probably  the  best  variety  to  grow  for  shelled  peanuts,  but  for  peanuts 
roasted  and  sold  in  the  pod,  the  larger  varieties,  such  as  Virginia,  arc 
preferred. 

Tennessee  Red  is  a  small-podded  variety  similar  to  the  Spanish, 
but  the  pods  are  longer  and  sometimes  contain  five  or  six  peas.  This 
is  considered  a  very  good  variety  to  grow  for  stock  feeding. 

Composition  of  Peanuts. — The  peanut,  like  most  leguminous 
plants,  is  characterized  by  being  very  rich  in  protein  matter.  Pea- 
nuts are  also  extremely  rich  in  oil,  being  exceeded  in  this  respect  by 


442 


PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 


very  few  plants.     The  following  table  gives  the  composition  of 
peanuts  in  comparison  with  some  other  standard  products : 

Composition  of  Peanuts  and  Other  Products 


Protein 
Per  cent 

Carbohydrate^ 
Per  cent 

•  4         Fats 
Per  cent 

Peanut  hay 

10-12 

42-46 

2-4 

Peanut  whole  plant  

13-18 

36-40 

15-21 

Peanut  kernels  

24-26 

16-18 

42-50 

Corn  meal  

9-10 

66-68 

4-5 

Cottonseed  meal 

40-42 

22-24 

13-14 

Clover  hay 

12-13 

35-45 

2-4 

Timothy  hay     

6-7 

52-54 

2-3 

Climatic  Requirements. — Peanuts,  being  a  tropical  plant,  re- 
quire a  long  growing  season  free  from  frost.  The  earlier  varieties 
require  from  100  to  120  days  without  frost,  while  the  larger  varieties, 
such  as  Virginia,  require  a  month  longer.  The  peanut  is  favored  by 
bright,  sunshiny  weather  and  comparatively  light  rainfall  during  the 
growing  season. 

Soils  for  Peanuts. — Peanuts  thrive  on  almost  any  soil  type, 
ranging  from  light,  sandy  soil  to  clays.  The  light,  sandy  soils,  how- 
ever, are  generally  preferred  for  two  reasons:  It  is  easier  to  keep 
the  surface  in  a  mellow  condition  under  the  vines,  and  also  the  pods 
have  a  brighter  and  a  cleaner  appearance.  The  color  of  the  pod, 
however,  is  only  important  in  the  case  of  peanuts  to  be  sold  on  the 
market,  but  of  no  consequence  where  they  are  grown  for  stock  feed 
or  to  be  shelled.  Good  drainage  is  also  necessary. 

Fertilizers  and  Manures. — It  is  generally  considered  quite  im- 
portant to  have  sufficient  lime  present  in  the  soil  so  there  is  no 
acidity.  While  the  vines  grow  very  well  on  a  slightly  acid  soil,  they 
do  not  usually  set  so  good  a  crop  of  pods.  The  amount  of  lime  re- 
quired will  vary  from  500  to  1000  pounds  per  acre.  It  is  best  applied 
some  weeks  before  planting.  In  natural  limestone  soils,  of  course  no 
lime  is  required. 

The  most  important  mineral  fertilizer  for  peanuts  is  phosphate, 
while  potash  is  probably  next  in  importance.  Only  a  small  quantity 
of  nitrogen  is  needed,  since  the  peanut  is  a  legume  and  acquires  its 


DISTANCE  TO  PLANT  443 

nitrogen  supply  from  the  air.  A  good  peanut  fertilizer  should  contain 
two  or  three  per  cent  available  nitrogen,  eight  to  ten  per  cent 
phosphate,  and  about  six  per  cent  potash.  This  is  generally  applied 
at  the  rate  of  300  to  500  pounds  per  acre.  Farmyard  manures  and 
green  manures  are  not  considered  as  important  for  the  peanut  crop 
as  for  many  other  crops.  .  In  fact,  it  is  not  considered  desirable  to 
add  stable  manure  to  land  the  same  year  the  peanuts  are  grown,  as  it 
has  a  tendency  to  produce  an  overgrowth  of  tops  and  poorly  filled 
pods.  It  is  better  to  apply  the  stable  manure  to  some  previous  crop. 

Preparation  of  the  Land. — It  is  important  in  growing  peanuts 
to  have  the  land  free  from  weeds  and  weed  seeds,  as  it  is  difficult  to 
cultivate  them  closely,  owing  to  their  viny  nature.  Generally  pea- 
nuts should  follow  a  crop  which  has  been  given  clean  culture,  such 
as  corn  or  cotton. 

In  preparing  the  land,  it  should  be  first  well  plowed  and  fitted. 
It  is  the  general  custom  then  to  open  up  furrows  where  the  peanut 
rows  are  to  go,  and  apply  fertilizer  in  these  rows.  The  fertilizer  is 
then  covered  with  a  back  furrow.  Before  planting  the  ridges  are 
worked  down  with  harrows  or  weeders  until  almost  level.  The  pea- 
nuts are  then  planted  about  two  inches  deep  in  these  ridges,  directly 
over  the  fertilizer.  The  planting  is  generally  done  by  machinery, 
though  where  grown  on  a  small  scale,  hand  planting  is  still  practised. 
In  some  cases,  especially  on  poor  soil,  late  in  the  season,  the  ridges 
are  not  prepared,  but  the  planting  is  done  on  level  land. 

Distance  to  Plant. — The  Bunch  varieties,  such  as  the  Virginia 
Bunch  or  Spanish  Peanuts,  are  usually  planted  in  rows  from 
twenty-eight  to  thirty  inches  apart,  but  the  larger  varieties  are 
planted  about  thirty-six  inches  apart.  With  the  smaller  varieties 
the  plants  are  usually  spaced  six  or  eight  inches  in  the  row,  or  for 
the  larger  varieties,  twelve  inches  apart.  The  planting  of  all  varie- 
ties is  closer  together  on  poor  soil  than  on  rich  soil.  The  amount  of 
seed  required  is  about  two  bushels  per  acre  when  planted  in  the  pod, 
or  about  half  a  bushel  per  acre  of  shelled  peas.  Shelled  peas  are 
usually  preferred,  as  they  germinate  quicker  and  more  uni- 
formly. The  smaller  varieties,  such  as  Spanish,  are  very  commonly 
planted  in  the  pod,  but  the  larger  varieties,  such  as  Virginia,  are 


444  PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 

usually  shelled.  The  shelled  seed  is  usually  dropped  much  more 
uniformly  by  machinery  than  when  planted  in  pods. 

Time  of  Planting. — Peanuts,  being  rather  sensitive  to  frost  and 
cold  soil,  should  not  be  planted  until  warm  weather.  This  is  usually 
soon  after  corn  planting  period.  In  Virginia  the  crop  is  generally 
planted  in  May,  but  somewhat  earlier  farther  south.  Early  varieties 
of  peanuts,  such  as  the  Spanish,  can  be  planted  up  to  the  first  of 
July,  but  the  yield  is  usually  correspondingly  decreased  if  the  plant- 
ing is  later  than  July  first. 

Method  of  Cultivation. — The  method  of  cultivation  for  peanuts 
is  very  similar  to  cultivation  for  corn  or  cotton  and  practically  the 
same  tools  are  used.  It  is  important  to  keep  a  loose  mulch  of  soil 
under  the  vines,  in  order  that  the  "  pegs  "  or  young  pods  may  be 
easily  pushed  into  the  soil.  It  is  the  general  custom  to  use  rather 
narrow  shovel  cultivators  for  the  early  cultivation,  and  to  "  lay-by  " 
by  throwing  a  considerable  ridge  of  loose  soil  'about  the  plant. 

HARVESTING 

Time  of  Digging. — It  is  the  general  custom  to  dig  peanuts- 
before  frost,  in  order  to  save  the  tops  for  stock  feed.  They  are 
generally  considered  ready  to  dig  whenever  the  pods  nearest  the  base 
of  the  plant  show  a  tendency  to  shed.  Maturity  is  also  shown  by  the 
leaves  assuming  a  yellowish  appearance.  There  will  always  be 
some  green  pods  on  the  plant,  but  digging  should  take  place  when 
the  majority  are  mature. 

Methods  of  Digging. — Various  means  of  digging  or  lifting  the 
peanuts  have  been  devised.  A  very  common  method  is  to  remove 
the  mould  board  from  a  common  turning  plow,  and  run  the  share 
underneath  the  peanut  vine,  cutting  off  the  tap  root  and  loosening 
the  plants.  The  plants  are  then  lifted  with  a  fork  and  thrown  into 
windrows,  or  smaller  bunches. 

The  large  horsepower  potato  diggers  have  been  found  very  prac- 
tical tools  for  lifting  peanuts,  and  this  is  the  most  practical  and 
desirable  method  where  the  acreage  will  justify  it.  Special  machines 
are  also  in  the  market  for  digging  and  bunching  the  peanuts,  some 
of  which  are  very  successful. 


PICKING  AND  STORING 


445 


Curing  the  Peanuts. — Peanuts  cure  rather  slowly,,  the  process 
taking  from  four  to  six  weeks.  It  is  the  custom  to  set  up  stakes 
about  seven  feet  high,  either  in  the  field  or  in  the  stackyard.  The 
stakes  are  usually  sharpened  at  both  ends  and  set  firmly  in  the 
ground.  Usually  one  or  two  cross-pieces  are  nailed  near  the  ground 
to  keep  the  peanuts  from  the  soil  and  provide  circulation  of  air.  The 
peanut  vines  are  then  stacked  about  the  pole  with  the  pods  inside, 
leaving  as  much  air  space  as  possible  next  to  the  pole.  A  few  vines 


FIG.   191. — Method  of  shocking  peanut  crop,  over  a  stake. 

are,  from  time  to  time,  thrown  over  the  pole,  in  order  to  bind  the 
shock  together.  The  shock  should  be  narrow,  not  more  than  four 
feet  in  diameter,  and  well  capped  to  shed  rain.  The  shocking  should 
take  place  not  more  than  twenty-four  hours  after  lifting,  as  the  pods 
will  shrivel  up  if  exposed  too  long. 

Picking  and  Storing. — When  the  pods  have  been  well  cured, 
they  are  ready  to  be  picked.  Picking  should  always  take  place  dur- 
ing dry  weather,  as  the  least  moisture  coming  in  contact  with  the 
pods  will  discolor  them.  In  the  past  the  pods  have  been  generally 


446  PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 

hand-picked,  the  Work  mostly  done  by  women  and  children  at  a  cost 
of  from  ten  cents  to  twelve  cents  per  bushel.  Several  machines 
are  now  on  the  market  for  picking,  the  better  types  of  which  do  very 
satisfactory  work.  The  greatest  difficulty  with  machine-picking 
heretofore  has  been  due  to  the  cracking  more  or  less  of  the  pods. 
Cracking  is  especially  serious  when  the  peanuts  are  put  in  storage, 
as  there  are  several  insects  which  work  on  the  peas  if  the  pods  are 
cracked. 

Preparation  for  Market. — As  the  peas  come  from  the  machine 
or  hands  of  the  pickers,  they  contain  considerable  dirt  and  are  usually 
covered  with  fine  dust.  They  are  usually  cleaned  by  machinery, 
which  scours  and  polishes  the  pods  more  or  less.  The  cleaning  and 
preparing  for  market  is  usually  done  at  the  warehouses  and  not  by  the 
growers.  The  large  type  of  peanuts  are  usually  graded  and  given 
special  preparation  to  improve  their  appearance. 

Shelled  peanuts  are  used  very  extensively,  and  these  are  usually 
prepared  also  by  special  shelling  machinery.  The  best  grades  of  the 
large  peanuts  are  usually  sold  in  the  pods,  but  the  smaller  peas  are 
more  commonly  shelled. 

Uses  of  the  Peanut. — The  peanut  is  gaining  in  importance  as 
a  food  plant.  They  are  prepared,  either  by  roasting,  to  be  sold  in 
the  pod,  or  after  roasting  they  may  be  shelled,  slightly  salted,  to  be 
sold  as  salted  peanuts.  Peanut  butter  is  also  an  important  com- 
mercial product,  and  it  is  prepared  by  grinding  the  peanuts  into 
a  fine  emulsion.  Peanut  butter,  which  is  almost  fifty  per  cent  oil, 
has  the  advantage  of  retaining  its  quality  without  becoming  rancid, 
and  is  adapted  to  a  variety  of  uses. 

Peanut  oil  is  also  manufactured  very  extensively,  the  crushed 
peanuts  yielding  about  thirty  per  cent  oil.  It  can  be  used  as  salad 
oil  in  place  of  olive  oil,  though  it  is  not  considered  as  good  as  the 
best  grade  of  olive  oil.  Large  quantities  of  peanut  oil  are  produced 
in  Marseilles,  France,  from  peanuts  largely  imported  from  India 
or  north  Africa.  After  the  oil  is  extracted,  the  peanut  cake  makes 
a  valuable  stock  feed. 

Peanuts  as  a  Stock  Feed. — It  has  long  been  the  practice  to  turn 
hogs  into  the  peanut  field  after  harvest  to  gather  up  the  pods  that 


QUESTIONS  447 

have  been  left.  They  are  now  regularly  cultivated  in  many  places  as 
feed  for  hogs,  the  animals  being  turned  into  the  field  to  harvest  the 
crop  for  themselves.  Hogs  fatten  readily  on  peanuts,  but  should  be 
corn-fed  for  some  time  before  slaughter,  as  an  exclusive  diet  of  pea- 
nuts produces  a  rather  soft  quality  of  meat. 

Peanut  vines  make  an  excellent  quality  of  hay.  As  a  hay  crop 
peanuts  should  be  planted  somewhat  thicker  than  common.  The 
vines  are  cut  with  a  mowing  machine  and  cured  like  any  other  hay. 
A  yield  varying  from  one  to  two  tons  per  acre,  cured  hay,  is 
expected.  Spanish  peanuts  are  the  favorite  variety  to  grow  for  hay 
crop.  Peanut  straw,  if  the  vines  are  well  cured,  makes  a  very  fair 
stock  feed,  and  is  usually  utilized  for  this  purpose. 

Insects  and  Diseases. — Peanuts  are  quite  free  from  insect 
enemies.  A  small  aphis  sometimes  works  on  the  roots  of  the  plant, 
but  is  not  considered  a  very  serious  pest.  The  principal  injury 
comes  from  insects  that  attack  the  peanut  in  storage ;  however,  they 
can  only  attack  those  peanuts  where  the  pods  have  been  cracked,  and 
their  control  is  only  a  problem  of  storing  sound  peanuts.  The  only 
disease  of  importance  is  known  as  leaf  spot  and  produces  small  brown 
spots  on  the  leaves ;  however,  it  only  gives  trouble  during  very  wet 
periods  or  on  low,  wet  land.  It  is  never  known  to  give  trouble  under 
other  conditions.  The  disease  can  be  controlled  by  spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

PEANUTS 

1.  If  green  plants  or  preserved  material  is  available,  make  drawings  of 
a  stem,  showing  a  blossom,  "  peg"  and  pod. 

2.  Determine  the  relative  size  by  weight,  and  per  cent  of  hull,  in  all  the 
standard  varieties  you  can  secure. 

3.  Plant  a  few  peanuts  and  make  weekly  observations  on  growth  dur- 
ing the  summer. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Tell  the  origin  and  history  of  the  cow  pea. 

2.  How  are  they  classified  ? 

3.  What  are  the  best  known  varieties? 

4.  Give  the  soil  and  climatic  adaptations. 

5.  What  are  the  principal  cultural  methods? 

6.  Give  time  of  sowing  and  amount  of  seed. 


448  PEAS,  BEANS,  VETCHES,  PEANUTS 

7.  Importance  of  inoculation. 

8.  What  are  the  yields  of  hay  and  seed  ? 

9.  Name  principal  insect  enemies  and  diseases. 

10.  Give  the  origin  and  history  of  the  soy  bean. 

11.  Name  important  characteristics. 

12.  What  are  best  varieties  for  each  region? 

13.  Give  climatic  and  soil  adaptations. 

14.  Compare  with  cow  peas  in  character  of  plant. 

15.  Give  methods  of  culture  for  seed.    For  forage. 
1C.  Give  mixtures  with  soy  beans. 

17.  Why  is  it  valuable  to  mix  with  corn  silage? 

18.  Give  importance  of  inoculation. 

19.  How  is  the  crop  utilized? 

20.  Describe  field  peas. 

21.  How  do  they  compare  with  cow  peas  in  climatic  adaptations?     In  soil 

adaptation  ? 

22.  Name  principal  varieties. 

23.  Give  time  of  sowing.    Quantity  of  seed  sown. 

24.  Give  some  common  mixtures. 

25.  Why  so  often  mixed  with  oats? 

26.  Give  the  life  history  of  the  pea  weevil. 

27.  Name  two  principal  types  of  cultivated  vetch. 

28.  Describe  spring  vetch. 

29.  Where  is  spring  vetch  principally  grown? 

30.  Give  culture  methods. 

31.  How  is  the  seed  crop  harvested? 

32.  Where  cut  for  hay  or  forage? 

33.  What  is  the  pasture  value  of  spring  vetch? 

34.  How  does  winter  vetch  differ  from  spring  vetch? 

35.  Where  is  winter  vetch  grown? 

36.  Gwre  ordinary  cultural  methods. 

37.  How  is  it  used  as  green  manure  crop? 

38.  Name  common  mixtures  with  winter  vetch. 

39.  Describe  the  horse  bean. 

40.  Name  other  cultivated  vetches. 

41.  To  what  cultivated  plants  are  peanuts  related? 
4!J.  Relate  the  origin  and  history  of  the  peanut. 

43.  Where  are  peanuts  most  extensively  grown  at  present  ? 

44.  Describe  the  peanut  plant,  and  especially  the  formation  of  the  pod. 

45.  Describe  briefly  each  of  the  important  varieties. 

46.  How  does  the  peanut  compare  with  other  common  products   in    (1) 

protein;    (2)  carbohydrates;    (3)   fats? 

47.  Would  you  consider  peanuts  a  rich  food  ? 

48.  Why  are  light  or  sandy  soils  often  preferred  for  peanuts? 

49.  Will  they  do  well  in  loam  or  clay  soils? 

50.  Why  is  lime  often  needed  by  peanuts? 

51.  Discuss  the  use  of  fertilizers.     Of  farmyard  manures. 

52.  Describe  a  method  of  preparing  land  and  applying  fertilizer. 

53.  What  is  the  ordinary  distance  of  planting  with  small  varieties?  With 

large  varieties? 

54.  How  much  seed  is  required  in  planting  an  acre? 

55.  When  are  peanuts  planted? 


QUESTIONS  449 

56.  How  are  peanuts  cultivated? 

57.  How  do  you  determine  when  peanuts  are  ready  to  dig?     Describe 

methods  of  digging. 

58.  Describe  the  method  of  curing  peanuts. 

59.  Why  should  picking  take  place  during  dry  weather?     How  are  they 

picked  ? 

60.  How  are  peanuts  prepared  for  market? 

61.  What  is  peanut  butter?    Peanut  oil? 

62.  How  are  peanuts  utilized  as  stock  feed? 

63.  What  varieties  are  usually  grown  for  stock  feed? 

64.  Are  peanuts  subject  to  injury  from  insects  or  diseases?    How  is  insect 

injury  prevented? 


29 


CHAPTER  XLIV 
ROOT    CROPS 

ROOT  crops  are  grown  for  human  food,  for  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  and  as  forage  crops  for  stock  feed. 

Those  grown  for  stock  feed  are  classed  as  beets,  turnips,  carrots, 
and  artichokes.  Since  cabbage,  kale,  and  rape  belong  to  the  same 
family  as  turnips,  are  grown  for  stock  feed,  and  the  culture  is  similar, 
it  is  best  to  consider  them  all  at  the  same  time. 

In  England  and  north  Europe  root  crops  have  long  been  impor- 
tant crops  for  feeding  stock.  In  the  United  States  they  have  never 
become  important,  only  19,000  acres  of  root  forage  being  reported 
for  the  census  year  1909,  while  in  Canada  194,000  acres  were 
reported.  Their  culture  in  the  United  States  has  been  retarded  for 
two  reasons:  (1)  The  relatively  high  cost  of  labor,  as  root  crops 
require  much  hand  labor,  and  (2)  competition  with  corn  and 
sorghum,  both  of  which  produce  stock  feed  at  much  cheaper  cost.  In 
Europe  roots  have  been  regarded  important  as  a  winter  succulent 
feed,  but  in  the  United  States  they  will  hardly  compete  with  corn 
silage  for  this  purpose,  at  least  until  labor  is  relatively  much  cheaper. 

Root  crops  are  more  important  in  Canada,  partly  due  to  the  less 
yield  of  corn,  and  probably  in  part  due  to  a  closer  following  of 
European  customs  in  cattle  feeding. 

BEETS 

The  sugar  beet  holds  first  rank  as  a  root  crop,  since  about  one- 
half  of  the  world's  sugar  comes  from  this  source,  about  six  per  cent  of 
which  comes  from  the  United  States. 

The  cultivated  beets  are  usually  classed  into  four  groups : 

1.  Chard  (grown  for  leaf  stems). 

2.  Table  beets  (red  flesh)   (Fig.  192). 

3.  Mangel-wurzel  (red  and  white  flesh). 

4.  Sugar  beets  (white  flesh). 

The  first  two  classes  are  grown  only  for  culinary  purposes,  sugar 
450 


STRUCTURE 


451 


beets  for  sugar  manufacture,  though  occasionally  fed  to  stock,  while 
mangel-wurzels  are  grown  only  for  stock  feed. 

Root,  Stem,  and  Crown. — The  relation  between  root,  stem,  and 
the  crown  of  leaves  is  most  clearly  understood  by  comparing  a  cab- 
bage, kohl-rabi,  and  turnip  as  all  belonging  to  the  same  family.  In 
root  crops  the  enlarged  part"  is  part  root  and  part  stem,  the  propor- 
tion of  each  varying  in  different  varieties.  The  two  parts  can  not  be 
clearly  distinguished,  but  it  is  probable  that  in  the  case  of  types 
deep  set  in  the  soil  the  enlarged  portion  is  mostly  true  root,  while 
in  the  case  of  those  that  grow 
largely  above  ground  a  higher 
proportion  is  enlarged  stem. 

Shape  of  Mangels.— The 
shape  of  mangels  is  designated 
as  long  (Fig.  193),  half  long, 
tankard,  oval,  or  globe.  The 
long  and  tankard  shapes  are 
most  popular.  These  types  usu- 
ally stand  about  one-half  out 
of  ground,  and  are  easy  to  har- 
vest and  handle. 

A  good  beet  is  not  quite 
round  in  cross-section,  but  has 
a  shallow  depression  on  two 
sides.  This  depression  is  called 
a  dimple.  Fine  fibrous  roots 
should  be  limited  to  this  depression.  There  should  be  no  tendency 
for  the  root  to  divide  at  the  tip  or  to  have  large  roots  coming  out  at 
other  points.  These  points  are  especially  important  in  sugar  beets, 
as  such  beets  are  apt  to  be  coarse,  lower  in  sugar,  and  also  difficult 
to  clean. 

Structure. — The  beet  is  usually  made  up  of  five  to  seven  alternate 
layers  of  tissue  differing  in  density.  In  table  beets  all  the  tissue  is  a 
deep  red.  In  mangels,  the  color  is  in  the  softer  rings  of  tissue,  while 
sugar  beets  are  white  throughout.  The  sugar  content  of  beets  is  not 
uniform  throughout,  but  they  are  poorest  in  the  center,  the  sugar 


FIG.  192. — Table  beet,  round  form. 


452 


ROOT  CROPS 


increasing  toward  the  outside  and  ends.  The  per  cent  of  dry 
matter  also  follows  the  same  principle,  being  greater  near  the  outside. 
The  same  is  true  of  potatoes,  where  the  percentage  of  dry  matter  is 
generally  about  two  lower  in  the  center. 

Composition. — All  beets  contain  sugar.  The  commercial 
manufacture  of  sugar  from  beets  was  first  developed  by  Napoleon  in 
1825.  At  that  time  beets  contained  only  six  per  cent  sugar,  but  since 
then  by  careful  selection  the  sugar  content  has  been  increased  to  four- 
teen or  sixteen  per  cent,  and  individual  beets  frequently  yield  above 
twenty  per  cent  sugar.  Stock  beets  usually  contain  six  to  eight  per 


cent  sugar. 


FIG.   193. — Mangel  beets,  long  form. 

Dry  matter  in  stock  beets  ranges  from  ten  to  sixteen  per  cent,  in 
comparison  with  potatoes  containing  sixteen  to  twenty  per  cent. 

Preparation  of  Land. — Beets  require  rather  deep  fertile  soils. 
It  seldom  pays  to  plant  stock  beets  on  any  but  rich  soil,  since  the 
cost  of  growing,  in  seed,  thinning,  hoeing,  and  cultivating  is  so  high 
that  the  crop  must  be  large.  For  sugar  beets  the  land  should  not  be 
too  rich  in  available  nitrogen,  as  it  will  cause  them  to  grow  rank  and 
be  poor  in  quality. 

Land  is  generally  plowed  deeper  for  beets  than  other  crops,  not 


CULTIVATION  453 

less  than  eight  inches  and  often  twelve  to  fourteen  inches.  It  should 
then  be  thoroughly  worked  and  pulverized,  in  order  to  insure  a  good 
stand  and  facilitate  the  careful  hand-work  necessary  during  the  first 
six  weeks  with  young  beets. 

Manure  and  Fertilizers. — For  stock  beets  it  is  practical  to  make 
very  heavy  applications  of  manure,,  up  to  twenty  tons  per  acre. 

All  root  crops  require  relatively  more  potash  than  grain  or  grass 
crops.  Fertilizers  for  roots  are  usually  in  the  proportion  of  4-8-6  to 
4-8-10.,  applied  at  the  rate  of  400  to  600  pounds  per  acre. 

Farmyard  manure  is  best  plowed  under  the  fall  before  the  land  is 
planted  to  beets,  but  fertilizers  are  applied  at  the  time  the  seeds 
are  planted.  Scattering  100  pounds  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre,  be- 
tween the  beet  rows  in  midsummer,  will  greatly  stimulate  growth, 
but,  in  the  case  of  sugar  beets,  injures  quality. 

Seeding. — The  beet  seed  of  commerce  is  a  capsule  containing  one 
to  five  seeds.  Each  capsule  will  produce  about  two  plants  on  the 
average.  Beet  seed  is  usually  of  good  quality  and  retains  vitality 
for  several  years.  Mangels  should  stand  seven  to  eight  inches  apart 
in  the  row  and  sugar  beets  five  inches.  From  twelve  to  fifteen 
pounds  of  mangel  seed  per  acre  and  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds  of 
sugar  beet  seed  are  generally  used,  in  order  to  insure  a  full  stand, 
although  under  ideal  conditions  half  of  this  would  be  sufficient. 

Seed  is  generally  put  in  with  a  garden  drill  or  grain  drill, 
although  special  beet  drills  are  used  where  grown  on  a  large  scale. 
The  rows  are  usually  twenty  inches  apart  for  sugar  beets,  and  thirty 
to  thirty-six  inches  for  mangels. 

Thinning. — When  the  plants  have  four  leaves  they  are 
"  bunched  "  with  a  narrow  hoe,  by  chopping  out  the  plants  except  in 
little  bunches  six  inches  apart.  Soon  afterward  the  plants  are 
thinned  by  hand  to  one  in  a  place.  This  is  the  hardest  and  most 
particular  work  connected  with  beet  growing. 

Cultivation. — A  weeder  or  light  harrow  can  be  used  several  times 
after  the  beets  are  well  started.  After  this  thorough  shallow  cultiva- 
tion with  narrow  tooth  cultivators  throughout  the  season.  Usually 
from  one  to  two  hand  hoeings  are  necessary,  the  first  being  given  at 
time  of  thinning. 


454 


ROOT  CROPS 


Harvesting. — Mangel  beets  can  be  pulled  by  hand,  but  sugar 
beets,  being  deeper  in  the  soil,  are  more  difficult  to  pull  and  are 
usually  lifted  with  a  beet  puller.  The  tops  are  twisted  off  when  beets 
are  stored  for  stock  feed,  but  in  the  case  of  sugar  beets  for  the  factory 
the  crown  is  cut  off.  Beets  can  be  kept  in  a  cool  cellar  for  three  to 
four  months,  but  they  do  not  keep  as  well  as  turnips. 

Yields. — Sugar  beets  usu- 
ally yield  from  eight  to  fif- 
teen tons  per  acre  and  mangels 
fifteen  to  thirty  tons.  Ruta- 
baga is  the  only  other  root 
crop  yielding  as  heavily  as 
mangels.  The  yield  of  dry 
matter  is  from  two  to  three 
tons  per  acre. 

Feeding  Value. — The  dry 
matter  of  beets  is  considered 
to  be  pound  for  pound  equal  to 
grain.  The  succulence  of  beets 
also  is  valuable  to  animals  on 
dry  feed,  especially  dairy  cows. 
Beets  when  first  harvested 
have  a  very  laxative  effect, 
which,  however,  disappears  when  kept  in  storage  for  two  months. 
Before  feeding,  beets  are  cut  by  hand  or  with  a  beet  slicer. 


FIG.  194. — Kohl-rabi,  belonging  to  cabbai 
family,  but  in  this  case  the  stem  is  enlarge 
not  the  root  as  in  turnips. 


TURNIPS 

On  the  west  and  south  coast  of  England  and  continental  Europe 
is  found  a  wild  broad-leaved  plant  somewhat  resembling  a  loose 
cabbage  plant  without  a  head,  and  known  to  botanists  as  Brassica 
oleracece.  This  plant  under  cultivation  has  shown  remarkable  vari- 
ation, giving  rise  to  a  large  number  of  cultivated  plants.  All  parts  of 
the  plant  have  been  modified,  the  leaves  in  cabbage,  the  flowers  in 
cauliflower,  the  axillary  buds  in  brussels  sprouts,  the  stem  in  kohl- 
rabi (Fig.  194),  and  the  root  in  rutabagas  (Fig.  195)  and  turnips. 


CULTURE  455 

Brassica  olemcece. — Cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  kohl-rabi, 
kale,  brussels  sprouts. 

Brassica  napus. — Rape. 

Brassica  campestris. — Rutabaga  or  Swede  turnips. 

Brassica  rapa. — Common  turnips. 

There  are  also  a  number  of  hybrids  between  turnips  and  ruta- 
bagas, known  as  hybrid  turnips. 

Cabbage,  kale,  rape,  rutabagas,  and  turnips  are  all  grown  for 
stock  feed. 

Comparison  of  Beets  and  Turnips. — Beets  in  general  thrive 


FIG.   195. — Rutabaga  or  Swede  turnips. 

under  rather  high  summer  temperatures,  while  the  cabbage-turnip 
group  require  rather  cool  weather.  Beets  are  sensitive  to  frost,  while 
turnips  all  endure  heavy  frost,  and  some  members  of  the  group,  as 
kale  and  collards,  endure  light  freezing.  Beets  contain  sugar,  but 
there  is  none  in  turnips.  Turnips  are  harder  in  texture,  and  keep 
longer  in  storage.  Turnips  in  general  do  relatively  better  on  light  or 
poor  soils  than  beets. 

Culture. — Rutabagas  and  large  turnips  are  sown  in  early  sum- 
mer, but  the  early  flat  turnips  may  be  sown  as  late  as  August  first, 
in  the  northern  States.  Turnips  make  their  best  growth  during  the 


456  ROOT  CROPS 

cool  weather  of  fall  and  continue  until  freezing  weather  kills  the 
tops.  Early  seedings  should  be  drilled  in  rows,  twenty  to  thirty 
inches  apart,  afterward  thinned  and  given  clean  culture  until  late 
summer.  Two  to  three  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  required. 

Early  flat  turnips  sown  in  late  summer  are  usually  broadcasted 
on  well-prepared  land,  and  given  no  culture. 

Eutabagas  usually  yield  about  as  well  as  mangels,  in  northern 
climates,  but  where  the  summers  are  hot  the  mangles  have  an  advan- 
tage. Flat  turnips  yield  only  half  or  two-thirds  as  much,  but  are 
quick  growing  and  may  often  be  sown  as  a  catch  crop  late  in  the 
season. 

RAPE 

Rape  is  a  large,  broad-leaved  plant  from  two  to  four  feet  high, 
and  is  well  suited  for  temporary  pasturage  or  soiling. 

.  .The  form  grown  for  forage  is  a  biennial  living  over  winter  in 
mild  climates,  as  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  principal  cultivated 
variety  is  Dwarf  Essex. 

'Rape  is  best  adapted  to  a  region  of  cool  summers,  and  will  endure 
heavy  frost  in  the  fall.  Rape  makes  an  excellent  pasture  for  sheep 
or  hogs,  and  for  this  purpose  is  best  sown  in  drills  twenty  inches 
apart.  The  animals  will  walk  between  the  drill  rows  and  not  tramp 
it  out  as  when  broadcast.  Rape  is  frequently  sown  with  small  grain 
at  the  rate  of  three  pounds  per  acre  and  harrowed  in,  but  preferably 
after  the  grain  is  well  started,  as  it  will  sometimes  grow  too  fast  for 
the  grain.  After  harvest  the  rape  makes  a  rapid  growth  and  will 
furnish  excellent  fall  pasture. 

CARROTS 

Carrots  are  about  as  productive  as  beets  or  turnips,  but,  being 
slower  starting  and  smaller,  require  more  care  in  early  growth. 

They  may  be  classed  according  to  color  as  red,  orange,  yellow,  or 
white,  while  the  roots  vary  from  slender  to  short  and  thick,  and  may 
be  either  tapering  or  cylindrical.  Carrots  grow  on  any  productive 
soil.  The  cultural  methods  are  about  the  same  as  for  beets  or 
turnips. 


QUESTIONS  457 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Compare  importance  of  root  crops  in  America  and  Europe. 

2.  Why  are  they  more  important  in  Canada  than  in  the  United  States? 

3.  Name  the  principal  types  of  beet'. 

4.  Define  the  root,  stem  and  crown  of  beets. 

5.  Mention  the  principal  shapes  of  the  mangel. 

6.  Give  structure  and  color  of  the  beet  root. 

7.  Give  the  composition  of  sugar  beets;  mangels:  per  cent  of  dry  matter. 

8.  Give   the   soil   requirements   and   preparation   for   beets;    manure   and 

fertilizers  used. 

9.  Describe  the  character  of  the  seeds. 

10.  Describe  the  planting,  thinning  and  harvesting  of  beets. 

11.  Give  the  yield  per  acre. 

12.  Tell  of  their  feeding  value. 

13.  What  other  plants  are  closely  related  to  turnips. 

14.  Compare  beets  and  turnips  in  composition. 

15.  In  climatic  and  soil  adaptations. 

16.  Describe  the  culture  for  rape. 


CHAPTER  XLV 
TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 

(By  L.  R.  Neel,  Editor  Southern  Agriculturist,  Nashville,  Tennessee) 

Importance  in  America. — Tobacco,  like  Indian  corn  and  the 
white  or  Irish  potato,  is  a  native  of  America.  It  was  cultivated  by 
the  Indians  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  and  exploration  of  the 
country  by  the  different  European  nations.  It  belongs  to  the  night- 
shade family  and  has  the  generic  name  of  "  Nicotiana." 

Tobacco  is  one  of  the  great  money  crops  of  America.  It  is  of 
much  less  importance  than  cotton,  but  the  gross  income  to  the 
farmer  for  the  country  per  annum  exceeds  a  hundred  millions  of 
dollars.  In  1913,  when  conditions  were  normal,  the  crop  was  valued 
at  $121,481,000  on  the  farms. 

Where  Tobacco  is  Grown. — Tobacco  culture  in  a  commercial 
way  is  confined  to  the  humid  part  of  the  United  States  and  largely 
to  the  eastern  portion  of  this  region.  It  is  grown  commercially  all 
the  way  from  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire  into  Florida.  Ken- 
tucky leads  in  the  production  of  tobacco,  North  Carolina  comes 
second,  Virginia  third,  Ohio  fourth,  Tennessee  fifth,  Wisconsin 
sixth,  Pennsylvania  seventh,  South  Carolina  eighth,  and  Connecti- 
cut ninth.  Other  States  produce  tobacco  commercially,  but  in 
considerably  smaller  quantities. 

The  cigar  types  are  grown  in  New  England,  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  Miami  Valley  of  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  Georgia,  and  Florida. 
Chewing,  smoking,  snuff,  and  export  types  are  grown  in  Kentucky, 
portions  of  southern  Indiana  and  Illinois  and  eastern  Ohio,  part 
of  Missouri,  Tennessee,  Maryland,  the  Virginias,  and  the  Carolinas. 
Small  acreages  of  tobacco  mainly  belonging  to  the  latter  type  are 
grown  in  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  Texas. 

Description  of  the  Tobacco  Plant. — Most  of  the  tobacco  in 
cultivation  is  derived  from  Nicotiana  tabacum,  the  Virginia  tobacco. 
It  is  a  coarse,  rank-growing  annual.  It  has  a  simple,  cylindrical  stem 
that  attains  a  height  of  from  three  to  six  feet  or  more  in  cultivation. 
The  stem  terminates  in  a  panicle  of  pink  or  rose-colored  flowers 
458 


TYPES  AND  VARIETIES 


459 


with  long  corolla  tubes.  The  leaves  are  simple  and  alternate.  They 
are  from  a  foot  to  two  feet  in  length.  The  seeds  are  very  small,  a 
single  plant  often  producing  as  many  as  1,000,000.  The  whole  of 
the  green  part  of  the  plant  is  covered  with  long,  soft  hairs  that  exude 
a  viscid  juice  and  give  the  surface  a  moist,  glutinous  feeling. 

Composition  of  the  Tobacco  Plant. — The  tobacco  plant  is  very 
rich  in  the  plant  food  elements  liable  to  be  deficient  in  the  soil.  A 
crop  yielding  1000  pounds  of  leaf  per  acre  removes  from  the  soil  in 
stalk  and  leaf  about  sixty-seven  pounds  of  nitrogen,  eighty-five 
pounds  of  potash  and  nine  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid.  Tobacco 
stalks  are  so  rich  in  plant  food  that  they  make  a  valuable  manure. 
They  contain  three  to  four  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  four  to  five  per  cent 
of  potash,  and  a  fractional  part  of  a  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid. 
The  stems  of  the  leaf  contain  from  two  to  three  per  cent  of  nitrogen, 
six  to  ten  per  cent  of  potash  and  a  fractional  part  of  one  per  cent  of 
phosphoric  acid.  The  following  table  is  taken  from  Bulletin  180 
of  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station  : 

Analysis  of  Fermented  and  Unfermented  Tobacco  Leaves 


A 

Upper 
Leaves 

B 

Short 
Seconds 

C 

First 
Wrappers 

Unfer- 
mented 

ti 

£g 

Unfer- 
mented 

ii 
*l 

ri 

<u  -S- 

§1 

Water  

23.50 
14.89 
2.50 
1.89 
.67 
1219 
7.90 
3.20 
29.39 
3.87 

23.40 
15.27 
1.79 
1.97 
.71 
13.31 
8.78 
3.36 
27.99 
3.42 

27.40 
22.85 
.77 
2.39 
.16 
6.69 
7.89' 
2.62 
26.28 
2.95 

21.10 
25.25 
.50 
2.82 
.16 
6.81 
8.95 
3.01 
28.36 
3.04 

27.50 
15.84 
1.26 
2.59 
.33 
11.31 
9.92 
2.89 
25.52 
2.84 

24.90 
16.22 
1.14 
2.35 
.47 
11.62 
10.42 
3.08 
26.88 
2.92 

Ash 

Nicotine  

Nitric  acid  (N2O5)  
Ammonia  (NHa) 

Other  nitrogenous  matters. 
Fiber  

Starch  

Other  nitrogen-free  extract 
Ether  extract  

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Types  and  Varieties. — There  are  three  general  classes  of 
tobacco.  They  are:  (1)  Cigar  tobaccos,  (2)  export  tobaccos,  an,d 
(3)  manufacturing  tobaccos.  By  manufacturing  tobaccos  are  meant 


460 


TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 


all  kinds  of  tobaccos  not  used  in  cigars.    The  last  two  classes  have 
so  much  in  common  that  they  are  usually  considered  together. 

In  the  cigar  class  are  the  three  general  types  of  wrapper  leaf, 
binder  leaf,   and  filler  leaf.     In  the   manufacturing   and   export 

tobacco  are  such  kinds  as  dark 
fire-cured,  Virginia  sun-cured, 
flue-cured,  and  white  Burley. 

Three  important  varieties 
or  groups  of  varieties  are  used 
in  growing  cigar  leaf  tobacco 
in  this  country.  They  are  the 
broad-leaf  or  seed-leaf  group; 
the  Cuban  group,  and  the 
Havana  seed  group.  There  is 
an  important  group  of  so-called 
Spanish  varieties  that  are  prac- 
tically like  the  Havana,  if  not 
identical  with  them.  The  Zim- 
mer  Spanish  grown  in  the 
Miami  Valley  for  a  filler  and 
the  Comstock  Spanish  grown 
in  Wisconsin  for  binder  leaf  be- 
long to  this  group. 

The  principal  varieties  used 
in  producing  dark .  fire-cured 
tobacco  are  the  Pryors,  the 
Yellow  Mammoth,  and  the 
Orinocos.  These  varieties  and 
selections  from  them  are  used 
in  producing  the  Virginia  sun- 
cured  tobacco.  Such  strains  of  these  two  varieties  as  Little  Orinoco, 
Big  Orinoco,  Warne,  Gooch,  Adcock,  Yellow  Pryor,  and  Flannagan 
are  used  in  producing  flue-cured  tobacco.  White  Burley  is  the 
variety  used  in  producing  the  air-cured  tobacco  of  the  blue-grass 
region  of  Kentucky,  Tennessee  (to  a  limited  extent),  and  in 
southern  Ohio. 


Fia.   196. — Tobacco  plant  developed  for  seed 
production.       (Maryland  Bulletin  188.) 


EFFECT  OF  THE  CROP  ON  THE  SOIL  461 

Tobacco  Soils  and  Effect  of  Soil  on  Type. — In  few  if  any 

crops  does  the  soil  have  a  greater  influence  on  the  quality  of  the 
product  than  tobacco.  Tobacco  of  fine  texture  and  mild  flavor  is 
produced  on  light,  well-drained  soils  not  too  rich  in  organic  matter, 
while  the  large  yields  of  heavy  and  stronger  tobacco  are  grown  on 
the  heavier  and  richer  soils.  The  cigar  wrapper  tobacco  is  grown  on 
the  fine  sands  and  sandy  loam  soils  of  the  Connecticut  Valley  and 
Florida.  In  these  soils  the  percentage  of  clay  is  low  in  both  top  and 
subsoil  and  they  are  not  retentive  of  moisture.  The  binder-leaf  soils 
of  Wisconsin  are  sandy  loams,  light  clay  loams,  and  prairie  soils 
which  are  dark  rich  loams.  The  cigar  filler  soil  of  the  Lancaster 
district,  Pennsylvania,  is  chiefly  a  limestone  soil  of  the  Hagerstown 
loam.  It  is  a  strong  and  moderately  heavy  soil.  On  the  sandy 
loam  soil  of  this  district  excellent  wrapper  leaf  has  been  produced 
under  shelter,  showing  how  great  is  the  influence  of  soil  on  type. 
Most  of  the  tobacco  grown  in  the  Miami  district  is  of  the  filler  type, 
and  the  soil  is  designated  as  the  Miami  clay  loam  and  the  Miami 
black  clay  loam. 

The  typical  soils  used  in  growing  flue-cured  tobacco  of  Virginia 
and  the  Carolinas  are  light  sands  and  sandy  loams  with  yellow  or  red 
subsoils  containing  small  proportions  of  clay.  The  white  Burley 
tobacco  reaches  its  highest  development  on  the  limestone  blue-grass 
soils  of  central  Kentucky.  White  oak,  beech,  walnut,  maple,  and 
hickory  clearings  are  famous  for  the  production  of  this  tobacco. 
Blue-grass  sod  that  has  lain  in  pasture  for  ten  or  twenty  years  or 
more  and  on  which  stock  have  been  fed  to  some  extent  produces  good 
quality  of  Burley  tobacco  and  gives  good  yields.  The  dark-tobacco 
soil  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  is  a  heavy  soil.  A  typical  soil  is 
derived  from  the  St.  Louis  limestone  and  it  is  a  silt  loam.  The 
soil  is  only  moderately  supplied  with  vegetable  matter  and  is  under- 
lain by  a  very  stiff  and  retentive  clay.  The  Maryland  tobacco,  which 
resembles  the  cigar-leaf  and  the  white  Burley,  is  grown  in  southern 
Maryland  on  a  silty  or  sandy  soil  gray  or  yellowish  in  color  and 
usually  deficient  in  vegetable  matter. 

Effect  of  the  Crop  on  the  Soil. — -As  suggested  before,  tobacco 
is  very  rich  in  plant  food,  and  this  means  that  it  draws  heavily  on  the 


462  TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 

soil.  It  is  not  the  most  exhaustive  crop,  but  is  above  the  average. 
Where  tobacco  land  is  allowed  to  lie  bare  in  winter  the  loss  by 
leaching  is  likely  to  be  greater  than  by  the  removal  of  plant  food  in 
the  crop. 

Fertilizers  for  Special  Results. — The  methods  of  fertilizing 
tobacco  vary  greatly  with  sections.  A  very  considerable  part  of 
this  difference  is  due  to  peculiar  soil  requirements,  while  more  is  due 
to  special  results  required  in  the  types.  For  some  kinds  of  heavy 
tobacco  the  best  grades  are  grown  on  the  richest  soils  of  the  sections,, 
as  for  instance  the  white  Burley.  In  other  grades,  such  as  the  lighter 
flue-cured  tobacco  of  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas,  the  best  grades 
are  produced  on  the  lighter  soils  not  too  rich  in  vegetable  matter. 
What  is  true  of  soils  is  also  true  of  fertilizers.  There  is  danger  of 
using  too  high  a  percentage  of  nitrogen  where  a  light,  fine-textured 
tobacco  is  grown,  while  this  element  can  be  used  very  liberally  in 
producing  the  heavy  tobaccos  adapted  to  the  highly  fertile  soils. 

Fertilizers  for  the  Various  Tobacco  Regions. — In  growing 
the  Connecticut  Havana  seed  tobacco  on  the  typical  sandy  soil  low 
in  vegetable  matter  and  under  very  expensive  cultural  methods,  it 
is  necessary  to  supply  the  soil  abundantly  with  plant  food.  In  the 
fall  from  ten  to  twenty  tons  of  good  stable  manure  should  be 
plowed  into,  the  land,  and  in  the  spring  it  should  be  plowed  again 
and  the  fertilizer  applied  broadcast.  A  ton  per  acre  of  a  mixture 
containing  about  five  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  five  per  cent  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  six  per  cent  of  potash  is  used.  If  the  manure  is  not  used 
the  nitrogen  content  may  be  six  per  cent.  The  same  fertilization  is 
suitable  for  the  Connecticut  broad-leaf,  but  a  somewhat  heavier 
application  can  be  made. 

In  Wisconsin,  where  the  Comstock  Spanish  is  grown  for  binder 
leaf,  fertilizing  with  commercial  fertilizer  has  not  been  so  well 
worked  out.  Stable  manure  is  used  with  good  profit. 

In  the  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania,  district,  where  the  broad-leaf  is 
grown  as  a  filler,  good  rotation  is  practised  and  barnyard  manure  is 
used  liberally,  but  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizer  is  not  universally 
adopted  and  formulas  are  not  very  definitely  worked  out. 

Commercial  fertilizer  pays  well  in  the  Miami  Valley  of  Ohio, 


FERTILIZERS  FOR  THE  VARIOUS  TOBACCO  REGIONS    463 

where  the  Zimmer  Spanish  variety  is  grown  for  filler.  Good  results 
are  obtained  in  using  as  much  as  1000  pounds  per  acre  of  a  mixture 
analyzing  nine  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  four  per  cent  nitrogen  and 
eight  per  cent  potash.  Stable  manure  gives  good  results,  too. 

The  Cuban  variety,  which  is  grown  mainly  in  southern  Georgia 
and  Florida  for  filler  leaf,  is  fertilized  heavily.  The  land  should 
have  fifteen  to  twenty  loads  of  stable  manure  applied  in  the  fall  and 
should  be  plowed.  A  good  fertilizer  mixture  to  apply  broadcast  in 
the  spring  before  setting  the  plants  is  600  to  800  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed meal,  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  and  200  pounds  of  sulfate 
of  potash  per  acre.  This  should  be  harrowed  in  the  soil  before 
marking  oft'  the- rows. 

White  Burley  tobacco  is  grown  on  the  best  land  of  the  farm,  as 
a  rule,  and  is  not  fertilized.  For  this  reason  fertilizer  formulae  are 
not  well  worked  out. 

In  the  dark  tobacco  district  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  fertilizer 
is  used  rather  generally,  but  in  comparatively  light  applications. 
Frequently  from  75  to  125  pounds  per  acre  are  dropped  in  the  hills 
and  this  is  all  that  is  used.  This  may  be  a  high-grade  mixture, 
analyzing  something  like  eight  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  three  or 
four  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  six  or  eight  per  cent  of  potash.  A 
mixture  that  has  given  very  profitable  results  in  the  Clarksville 
district  consists  of  300  pounds  high-grade  acid  phosphate,  400 
pounds  cottonseed  meal  and  50  pounds  sulfate  of  potash.  This 
is  a  good  application  per  acre.  It  should  all  be  spread  broadcast 
and  worked  into  the  soil  before  marking  off  the  rows.  However, 
seventy-five  pounds  per  acre  in  the  hill  are  permissible  and  may  be  an 
advantage  in  starting  the  plants.  Stable  manure  gives  good  results. 
Four  to  six  tons  per  acre  may  be  applied  in  the  winter  or  early 
spring  and  plowed  under  as  the  land  is  being  prepared. 

Liberal  applications  of  commercial  fertilizer  are  used  in  produc- 
ing the  flue-cured  tobacco  of  the  Carolinas  and  Virginia.  Where 
the  soil  is  light  and  only  moderately  fertile  a  good  formula  is  500 
pounds  each  of  cottonseed  meal  and  acid  phosphate  and  120  pounds 
of  sulfate  of  potash. 

The  Maryland  type  is  produced  with  light  applications  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  Stable  manure  gives  good  results. 


464  TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 

Form  of  Potash  to  Use. — Sulfate  of  potash  is  generally  used  in 
tobacco  fertilizers  because  the  chlorine  of  muriate  of  potash  has  an 
injurious  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  leaf.  A  good  deal  of  muriate  of 
potash  is  used  in  some  sections,  but  recent  results  in  Pennsylvania 
confirm  the  conviction  that  its  use  is  hazardous,  especially  where 
fine  quality  is  being  produced. 

Source  of  Nitrogen. — The  growers  of  white  Burley  tobacco 
supply  the  nitrogen  by  clearing  up  new  land  or  plowing  up  pastures 
that  have  never  been  broken  or  that  have  lain  in  white  clover  and 
blue-grass  for  many  years,  and  by  plowing  under  red  clover  sod. 
The  legumes  are  used  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air.  This  is  the 
cheapest  way,  and  as  vegetable  matter  is  also  thus  applied  it  is 
generally  the  best  way.  An  exception  might  be  in  growing  one  of 
the  light  tobaccos  that  does  best  on  soils  low  in  vegetable  matter.  In 
the  South  cottonseed  meal  is  used  extensively  as  a  source  of  nitrogen. 
Nitrate  of  soda  is  used  more  or  less  wherever  fertilization  is  gen- 
erally practised  with  tobacco.  It  is  usually  applied  after  the  plants 
are  set  and  have  started  to  grow.  A  light  application  may  be  made 
before  setting  the  plants  to  help  start  them  off.  Blood  meal  is  used 
in  many  of  the  mixtures  and  tankage  is  employed  in  some  sections 
in  the  tobacco  fertilizer. 

Source  of  Phosphoric  Acid. — Acid  phosphate  is  the  common 
source  of  phosphoric  acid  for  tobacco  fertilizers.  When  tankage  or 
bone  meal  is  used  to  supply  nitrogen  it  furnishes  at  least  a  part 
of  the  phosphoric  acid. 

Stalks  and  Stems. — Tobacco  stalks  and  leaf  stems  are  very  rich 
manures.  An  application  of  one  ton  to  two  tons  per  acre  makes  a 
pretty  liberal  fertilization.  A  good  way  to  apply  where  the  season 
is  long  enough  is  in  the  fall  on  a  crimson  clover  or  rye  and  vetch 
crop  that  is  to  be  plowed  under  for  the  tobacco  the  following  year. 
As  plant  food  is  set  free  from  the  stalks  the  growing  crop  makes 
use  of  it  and  stores  it  for  the  tobacco.  This  should  be  plowed  under 
some  weeks  before  time  to  set  the  plants. 

Breeding  and  Selecting  Tobacco. — Some  work  has  been  done 
and  is  being  done  at  crossing  and  hybridizing  tobacco  for  improve- 
ment. This  work,  of  course,  belongs  to  the  plant  breeders  and  not  the 
farmers. 


THE  PLANT  BED  465 

The  selection  of  seed  plants  for  the  production  of  seed  for  plant- 
ing is  a  very  important  operation.  It  is  simple  and  can  be  done  by 
any  intelligent  farmer  who  is  willing  to  take  a  little  pains. 

An  excess  of  plants  should  be  selected  during  the  season  and 
marked  by  tying  a  rag  or  a  tag  011  them.  They  should  come  up  to 
the  ideal  for  stalk,  leaf,,  and  texture  so  far  as  this  can  be  told  in 
the  growing  season.  A  dozen  plants  may  be  enough  on  the  small 
farm.  About  the  time  the  flowers  begin  to  open  a  twelve-pound 
papei*  bag  should  be  tied  over  the  flower  head  of  the  best  plants ;  some 
of  the  inferior  ones  can  be  .rejected.  If  any  flowers  have  opened 
they  should  be  cut  off,  because  they  have  probably  been  cross- 
pollinated  with  an  inferior  plant.  Every  few  days  the  bag  should 
be  raised  to  accommodate  the  lengthening  stalk  and  the  dead  flowers 
should  be  removed  to  prevent  mold.  Insects  that  injure  seed 
should  be  watched  for.  When  the  plants  are  mature  they  should  be 
cut  and  housed,  allowing  the  bags  to  remain  on  them.  The  leaves 
must  be  kept  separate  and  compared  so  that  the  best  seed  plants  can 
be  selected.  This  method,  kept  up  every  year  by  a  careful  man,  will 
result  in  a  great  improvement  of  the  variety  of  tobacco. 

The  Plant  Bed. — Tobacco  plants  are  started  in  beds  under 
favorable  conditions  from  six  to  twelve  weeks  or  even  longer  before 
time  to  set  in  the  field.  A  sunny  exposure  is  chosen  and  the  soil 
should  be  well  drained  and  warm.  In  some  sections  only  new  land 
is  used  for  plant  beds  and  no  extra  fertilization  is  given.  In  other 
sections  very  fertile  blue-grass  sod  is  plowed  in  the  early  fall  to 
decay  and  make  a  seed  bed  the  following  spring.  When  old  land  has 
to.be  used  manures  and  fertilizers  are  generally  employed.  Stable 
manure  (it  should  be  well  rotted)  is  used  at  the  rate  of  ten  to  twenty 
tons  per  acre,  and  rich  commercial  fertilizers  are  used  at  the  rate 
of  one  to  two  tons  per  acre.  The  fertilizer  is  usually  very  rich  in 
nitrogen.  The  Pennsylvania  Station  got  best  results  in  a  test  with 
forty-eight  pounds  of  manure,  four  pounds  cottonseed  meal,  one 
pound  of  acid  phosphate,  and  one-half  pound  of  sulfate  of  potash  to 
108  square  feet  of  bed. 

To  kill  weed  seed  and  disease  germs  the  plant  bed  is  usually 
burned.    This  may  be  done  by  heaping  wood  on  it  and  firing  it,  by 
30 


466 


TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 


using  a  furnace  or  steam.  .The  furnace  used  is  on  wheels  and  is 
placed  on  the  bed.  It  is  about  9  by  3  feet  and  has  a  pan  that  will 
hold  dirt  off  that  much  space  of  ground  to  a  depth  of  about  two 
inches.  Dirt  is  baked. in  it  for  an  hour  and  then  is  returned  where 
it  came  from.  More  dirt  is  taken  up  on  the  other  side  of  the 
furnace.  After  this  has  baked  an  hour  the  machine  is  wheeled  on, 
as  the  dirt  underneath  will  have  been  sufficiently  heated.  In  treat- 
ing with  steam  an  engine  and  a  metal  box  are  necessary  (Fig.  197). 
Steam  is  forced  in  the  box  that  is  turned  upside  down  on  the  bed 


FIG.    197. — Sterilizing  tobacco  beds  by  steam.    (Pennsylvania  Bulletin  130.) 

until  the  soil  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  175°  F.  to  a  depth  of  four 
inches.  This  temperature  should  be  maintained  an  hour.  This 
form  of  treating  tobacco  beds  has  been  most  satisfactory.  Sometimes 
logs  are  laid  around  the  plant  bed,  which  is  usually  six  or  eight  feet 
wide,  and  in  other  cases  boards  are  set  up.  A  ditch  should  be  opened 
around  it  and  one  should  lead  from  this  to  afford  good  drainage. 
Cross-drains  are  sometimes  needed.  After  burning,  the  soil  is 
worked  up  with  a  plow  or  hand  tools. 

Sowing  the  Seed. — The  rate  of  seeding  varies  greatly  with  the 
section.     In  some  cases  a  teaspoonful  of  seed  is  sown  to  100  square 


PREPARING  THE  FIELD 


467 


feet,  and  in  others  that  amount  is  sown  on  200  or  300  square  feet  of 
bed.  Sifted  wood  ashes,  land  plaster  or  some  other  diluent  is 
mixed  with  the  seed  to  aid  in  getting  even  distribution.  It  is  then 
better  to  go  over  the  land  two  or  three  times.  Before  sowing,  the 
light  seeds  should  be  separated  out  and  discarded  by  the  use  of  a 
blower  (Fig.  198).  The  seed  are  covered  by  tramping  the  land 
or  going  over  with  a  roller. 

After  sowing  the  seed  the 
bed  should  be  covered  with 
cheesecloth.  In  some  of  the 
more  northern  districts  glass 
is  sometimes  used  and  the 
plants  may  even  be  grown  in 
hot-beds. 

The  beds  are  watered  fre- 
quently in  dry  weather,  but  not 
excessively,  as  this  encourages 
fungous  diseases-.  Sometimes 
to  stimulate  the  growth  of  the 
plants  nitrate  of  soda  is  used 
at  the  rate  of  one-quarter  pound 
to  ten  gallons  of  water.  The 
plants  are  sprinkled  with  this. 
It  is  a  good  idea  to  use  cle.ar 
water  before  and  after  using  the 
solution  to  avoid  any  possible 
injury.  If  the  stand  is  too 
thick,  it  may  be  necessary  to 

thin,    and    if    the    bed    Was    not      Shainel,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.) 

burned  or  was  not  well  burned,  it  will  be  necessary  to  weed. 

A  week  or  ten  days  before  time  for  taking  the  plants  up,  the 
cheesecloth  or  glass  should  be  kept  off  some  to  harden  them. 

Preparing  the  Field. — If  the  danger  of  washing  will  not  be  in- 
creased, fall  or  winter  plowing  of  tobacco  land  is  frequently  advisable. 
At  any  rate,  early  plowing  should  usually  be  practised  to  give 
vegetable  matter  time  to  decay  and  become  available  as  plant  food 
and  to  aid  in  the  destruction  of  some  of  the  insect  pests.  Where 


468  TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 

cover  crops  are  grown  or  even  where  clover  is  to  be  plowed  under 
it  may  be  best  to  let  this  stand  until  within  a  month  or  less  of 
planting  time  to  make  more  vegetable  matter.  However,  when 
this  is  done  the  crop  should  be  thoroughly  disked  before  plowing, 
to  hasten  the  decay  of  the  green  crop.  The  land  should  be  thor- 
oughly harrowed,  disked,  and  rolled  to  make  a  fine  and  firm 
seedbed. 

Distances  of  Planting. — The  spacing  of  plants  varies  with  the 
type  of  tobacco  and  the  character  of  soil.  The  Connecticut  Havana 
seed  tobacco  is  grown  in  rows  about  three  feet  three  inches  or  three 
feet  six  inches  apart  and  fourteen  to  twenty  inches  in  the  row. 
The  Connecticut  broad-leaf  is  spaced  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches 
in  rows  somewhat  wider  than  the  Havana  seed.  The  Wisconsin 
tobacco  is  grown  in  rows  thirty-four  to  thirty-eight  inches  apart  and 
is  spaced  in  the  rows  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches.  The  Cuban 
variety  is  grown  in  rows  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet  apart  and 
is  spaced  fourteen  inches  in  the  row.  The  Pennsylvania  broad-leaf 
is  grown  in  rows  three  to  four  feet  apart  and  is  spaced  in  the  rows 
eighteen  to  thirty  inches.  The  Miami  Valley  tobacco  is  grown  in 
rows  thirty-four  to  thirty-six  inches  apart  and  is  spaced  twenty-two 
to  twenty-eight  inches  in  the  row.  The  dark  tobacco  is  usually 
grown  in  checks,  the  plants  being  about  three  and  one-half  feet  apart 
each  way.  White  Burley  is  grown  in  rows  three  and  one-half  feet 
apart  and  is  spaced  in  the  rows  eighteen  .to  twenty-four  inches.  Flue- 
cured  tobacco  is  grown  in  rows  three  and  one-half  to  four  feet  apart 
and  is  spaced  in  the  row  two  to  three  feet  apart.  Maryland  tobacco 
is  grown  in  checks  thirty -two  to  thirty-six  inches  apart  each  way. 

Transplanting  to  the  Field. — Machine  planting  is  becoming 
more  common.  When  the  acreage  justifies,  the  machine  proves  a 
good  investment.  It  takes  a  driver  and  two  persons  to  set  the 
plants.  It  automatically  waters  and  the  skilled  setter  places  the 
plant  so  as  to  get  most  benefit  from  this. 

When  hand  setting  is  employed  the  rows  are  marked  off,  and  then 
the  places  are  usually  marked  in  some  way  for  the  plants.  A  buggy 
wheel  with  the  rim  removed  and  the  spoke  spaces  right  may  be  run 
down  the  row  to  mark  places  for  plants.  When  the  tobacco  is 
placed  in  checks,  cross-rows  have  to  be  marked  to  indicate  where  the 


TOPPING  469 

plants  go.  An  opening  is  made  with  a  peg  or  dibble  and  the  plant 
is  inserted  and  the  dirt  firmed.  If  the  soil  is  not  moist  enough, 
some  water  will  have  to  be  poured  in  each  hole.  If  is  better  to 
set  in  cloudy  weather  and  late  in  the  day  when  this  is  practicable. 

Seasons  for  Setting  in  Different  Regions. — Tobacco  is  trans- 
planted when  the  season  gets  warm  so  the  plants  will  grow  well  with- 
out being  stunted.  In  Florida  this  would  be  in  March,,  in  Georgia 
in  April.  In  South  Carolina  planting  begins  in  April,  and  runs 
through  May  and  into  early  June  in  North  Carolina  and  Virginia. 
In  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  planting  begins  in  the  latter  part  of 
May  and  should  end  in  the  first  half  of  June.  In  Ohio  transplant- 
ing is  done  in  the  first  three  weeks  of  June.  In  Pennsylvania  and 
Wisconsin  transplanting  is  done  in  June,  the  best  time  being  not  far 
from  the  middle  of  the  month.  In  the  Connecticut  Valley  the 
tobacco  is  set  the  last  of  May  or  early  in  June. 

CARE  OF  THE  GROWING   CROP 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  tobacco  should  begin  soon  after 
the  plants  are  set,  at  least  by  the  time  they  take  root,  and  should 
be  continued  at  frequent  intervals  so  long  as  the  growth  of  the 
plants  will  permit.  It  is  often  an  advantage  to  cultivate  rather 
deep  early  to  let  air  down  into  the  soil  and  warm  it.  In  a  droughty 
year  this  would  be  of  doubtful  value.  After  this  the  aim  in  culti- 
vation should  be  to  preserve  a  dust  mulch  and  to  prevent  the  growth 
of  weeds.  The  hoe  should  be  used  just  enough  to  keep  the  weeds 
down. 

Topping. — The  aim  of  the  grower  is  to  develop  all  good  mature 
leaves  as  nearly  as  possible.  To  this  end  he  removes  the  flower 
heads  of  the  plants  when  enough  leaves  Jhave  formed.  Another 
important  reason  for  topping  is  that  blooming  and  forming  seed  is 
exhausting  to  the  plant  and  damages  the  quality  of  leaf.  Only  the 
plants  that  are  to  produce  seed  are  allowed  to  bloom.  Others  are 
topped  when  enough  leaves  have  formed,  when  the  button  of  the 
bloom  appears  or  when  the  plants  begin  to  bloom.  The  practice 
varies  with  the  section.  However,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  nothing 
is  gained  in  quality  by  allowing  a* plant  to  open  its  flowers  before 
topping.  The  number  of  leaves  varies  with  the  purpose  for  which 
the  tobacco  is  grown,  the  variety  and  the  soil.  Ten  or  twelve  leaves 


470  TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 

are  as  many  as  are  ordinarily  left  to  the  plant  in  some  regions,  while 
in  others  as  many  as  twenty  may  be  left. 

Suckering. — After  the  plant  is  topped  it  sends  out  suckers  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves.  If  these  are  allowed  to  grow  they  damage 
the  quality  of  the  leaf.  Ordinarily  these  are  removed  soon  after 
they  form  or  when  two  to  four  inches  long.  Others  appear  after 
this  and  must  be  removed  in  time  or  they  will  injure  the  tobacco.  It 
is  customary  to  sucker  only  once  in  Wisconsin  and  that  just  before 
harvesting.  This  practice  is  not  usual. 

Priming. — Priming  is  the  term  applied  to  the  removing  of  the 
lower  leaves  of  the  plant  that  are  practically  ruined  by  dragging  in 
the  soil  and  becoming  dirty  and  frayed.  Sometimes  the  priming  is 
done  at  the  time  of  topping.  Bottom  leaves  are  removed  until  those 
left  are  above  danger  of  injury  from  the  ground,  and  then  the  plant 
is  topped  until  as  many  are  left  as  it  is  desired  to  mature.  In  other 
cases  the  priming  is  done  before  or  about  the  time  of  ripening. 

Tobacco  Rotations  in  Different  Regions. — Strict  rotation  is 
followed  no  more  closely  with  tobacco  than  with  other  farm  crops. 
The  crop  often  follows  itself,  and  in  other  cases  is  just  fitted  in 
where  it  is  handy  or  where  it  is  thought  a  crop  can  be  grown.  The 
Virginia  Experiment  Station  has  done  some  valuable  work  in  work- 
ing out  rotation  for  tobacco  that  keeps  up  the  fertility  of  the  land 
and  at  the  same,  time  produces  good  quality  of  leaf.  One  recom- 
mended for  the  sun-cured  district  is:  First  year,  tobacco;  second 
year,  wheat;  third  and  fourth  year,  grass;  fifth  year,  corn  with 
crimson  clover  cover  crop;  sixth  year,  cow  peas;  seventh  year,  red 
clover.  The  following  year  tobacco  would  be  grown  again.  If  wire 
worms  and  cut  worms  are  bad  the  clover  would  be  omitted  and  the 
tobacco  would  follow  the  peas. 

The  Virginia  Station  recommends  the  following  rotation  for 
dark  and  flue-cured  tobaccos:  First  year,  tobacco;  second  year, 
wheat;  third,  fourth,  and  probably  fifth  year,  grass.  Herd's  grass 
seems  to  be  one  of  the  best  crops  to  precede  flue-cured  tobacco. 

In  Pennsylvania  some  very  good  rotations  are  followed.  A 
three  year  rotation  is :  (1)  Wheat,  (2)  grass,  (3)  tobacco.  This  is 
made  a  four-year  rotation  by  inserting  corn  between  grass  and 
tobacco. 


GROWING  TOBACCO  UNDER  ARTIFICIAL  SHADE         471 

A  rotation  that  is  followed  in  the  dark  tobacco  district  of  Ten- 
nessee and  Kentucky  when  clover  will  succeed  is:  (1)  Tobacco, 
(2)  wheat,  (3)  red  clover.  In  the  White  Burley  district  of  Ken- 
tucky, as  already  stated,  the  tobacco  is  put  on  new  land,  in  a  pasture 
that  has  never  been  broken  or  in  one  that  has  lain  in  sod  for  from 
ten  to  twenty  years.  WThen  a  good  piece  of  land  is  put  in  tobacco  it 
may  be  sown  to  rye  to  turn  under  in  the  spring,  and  tobacco  may 
be  planted  a  second  time.  After  this  wheat  or  rye  is  usually  sown 
and  the  land  is  put  back  in  grass.  Other  growers  raise  one  crop 
of  tobacco  on  blue-grass  sod  and  then  sow  rye  and  blue-grasses  and 
let  the  land  run  in  sod  then  for  a  term  of  years. 

Rotation  is  not  followed  systematically  in  Wisconsin.     The  sta- 


FIG.    199. — Cheesecloth  shade  for  growing  fine  wrapper   tobacco.     (Davis's   "Productive 

Farming.") 

tion  recommends  that  tobacco  be  grown  three  years  in  succession  on 
a  field  and  then  that  it  be  run  in  corn,  barley,  and  clover  for 
three  years  and  then  go  back  to  tobacco.  Another  recommendation  is 
that  it  run  in  tobacco  four  years  and  then  run  in  corn,  barley,  clover, 
clover  and  grass,  and  then  back  in  tobacco. 

A  rather  common  rotation  where  rotation  is  practised  in  Ohio 
is:  Tobacco,  wheat,  grass.  This  is  sometimes  made  a  four-year 
rotation  by  following  grass  with  corn  and  corn  with  tobacco. 

Growing  Tobacco  Under  Artificial  Shade. — Some  cigar  wrap- 
per tobacco  is  grown  under  artificial  shade  in  Connecticut,  Massachu- 
setts, and  Florida.  Tents  of  cheesecloth  are  erected  over  the  land 
on  which  the  tobacco  is  grown  (Fig.  199) .  Leaf  of  the  finest  quality 


472 


TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 


is  thus  produced,  and  it  brings  a  price  that  makes  the  very  expensive 
method  of  raising  profitable. 

HARVESTING  THE  CROP 

Ripeness  is  indicated  by  the  leaves  taking  on  a  yellowish  tinge. 
It  is  noticeable  on  the  bottom  leaves  first.  The  thickening  leaf  also 
has  a  leathery  feel.  Another  test  for  some  types  is  to  turn  up  the 
under  side  of  the  leaf  and  fold  between  the  fingers.  If  ripe  it  will 
snap  or  crack  and  retain  the  crease.  In  some  regions  the  ripening 
of  the  leaves  is  uneven  enough  so  that  they  are  gathered  separately 
as  they  ripen.  Generally,  however,  the  entire  plant  is  harvested 
when  the  majority  of  the  plants  are  at  the  best  stage. 


FIG.  200. — Frame  for  hauling  tobacco  to  the  barn,  Wisconsin.      (Courtesy  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station.) 

In  some  regions  shears  are' used  for  cutting  the  stalks,  in  others 
a  hatchet  is  used,  some  use  corn  cutters  and  others  knives  of  different 
kinds.  The  plants  are  usually  thrown  with  the  butt  end  next  to 
the  sun.  After  wilting  the  tobacco  is  hung  on  sticks  by  spearing  the 
stalks  or  by  splitting  them  from  the  top  to  within  six  inches  of 
the  butt,  and  then  placed  on  scaffolds  and  let  stay  outdoors  for  a 
few  days  or  are  taken  directly  to  the  barn.  Worms  and  suckers  are 
carefully  removed  as  the  crop  is  harvested  (Fig.  200). 

CURING    THE    CROP 

Air  Curing. — After  the  tobacco  has  wilted  and  probably  yellowed 
somewhat  on  the  scaffold  it  is  taken  to  the  barn  and  the  sticks  are 
hung  on  tier  poles  which  are  far  enough  apart  horizontally  to  accom- 


OPEN  FIRE  CURING 


473 


modate  the  stick  and  are  far  enough  apart  vertically  so  the  tiers 
will  not  crowd  each  other. 

Air  is  admitted  freely  through  side  ventilators.  Top  ventilators 
are  provided  for  the  part  of  the  crop  put  there.  In  dry  weather  the 
ventilators  are  kept  open  day  and  night,  but  on  damp  nights  they  are 
closed  (Fig.  201).  In  very  dry  weather  it  may  be  necessary  to  close 
the  ventilators  during  the  day  and  open  at  night  to  keep  the  tobacco 
from  curing  too  fast.  In  damp,,  drizzly  weather  it  may  be  better  to 
keep  the  ventilators  closed  day  and  night  until  the  tobacco  begins  to 
sweat,  when  ventilators  had  better  be  opened.  If  the  trying  weather 


FIG.  201. — Barn  for  curing  white  Burley  tobacco,   Kentucky. 

continues  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  a  fire  under  the  tobacco  of 
coke  or  charcoal. 

Open  Fire  Curing. — In  the  dark  tobacco  districts  the  tobacco  is 
hauled  to  the  house  after  wilting  or  possibly  after  being  placed  on 
the  scaffold  to  yellow  to  some  extent  and  crowded  closer  together 
than  in  air  curing.  Very  little  regard  is  paid  to  ventilation  in  the 
barn.  About  five  days  after  housing  the  yellowing  process  is  com- 
pleted and  firing  is  begun.  If  indications  of  heating  and  consequent 
house  burn  occurs,  firing  should  be  started  earlier.  The  fire  is  built 
on  the  ground  directly  under  the  tobacco.  Slow  fires  are  kept  up  for 
the  first  two  or  three  days  to  continue  the  yellowing  process.  Hotter 


474  TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 

fires  are  then  kept  up  until  the  curing  is  practically  completed. 
There  is  danger  in  curing  too  quickly.  Some  of  the  more  careful 
growers  fire  for  ten  days. 

Sometimes,  after  about  a  week's  firing,  the  tobacco  is  allowed  to 
sweat,  when  slow  fires  are  added  for  a  few  days.  Hickory  and  oak 
wood  are  preferable. 

Flue-curing. — Yellow  tobacco  is  cured  at  a  higher  temperature 
than  the  types  mentioned.  The  barn  has  close  walls.  If  they  are  of 
log  the  cracks  are  chinked  and  daubed  or  stopped  with  cement.  A 
ventilator  is  provided  at  the  top.  Furnaces  are  built  on  one  side 
and  pipes  lead  from  these  across  the  house  and  then  back  and  pass 
through  the  wall  a  few  feet  higher  than  the  level  at  which  they 
left  the  furnace.  A  vertical  pipe  carries  the  smoke  off. 

The  tobacco  is  allowed  to  wilt  to  the  right  stage  and  is  then  hung 
in  the  house.  The  first  tier  of  poles  is  pretty  high  off  the  ground, 
nine  feet  being  a  common  height.  The  barn  should  be  filled  in 
one  day  and  a  thermometer  hung  about  the  center  of  the  barn  on  the 
lower  tier.  A  moderate  fire  is  started  and  maintained  until  the  leaf 
is  thoroughly  yellowed,  which  usually  takes  twenty-four  to  thirty- 
six  hours.  During  this  process  the  barn  is  kept  tight.-  A  tempera- 
ture of  from  80°  to  120°  F.  is  maintained,  beginning  at  the  lower 
temperature  and  running  up  to  the  higher.  The  next  thing  to  do  is  to 
remove  moisture,  which  is  the  most  critical  part  of  the  curing.  A 
temperature  of  from  130°  to  140°  F.  is  maintained  until  the  leaf  is 
dry.  Close  attention  has  to  be  paid  to  the  ventilation  to  keep  the 
moisture  just  right.  After  the  moisture  is  gone  the  ventilators  are 
closed  down  and  the  temperature  is  run  up  to  165°  to  170°  F.  at  the 
rate  of  about  five  degrees  an  hour.  This  temperature  is  maintained 
until  all  stems  are  dry  (Fig.  202). 

Stripping,  Sorting,  and  Tying. — After  tobacco  is  cured  it  is 
let  hang  until  the  conditions  get  right  for  the  absorption  of  moisture, 
when  the  leaves  become  pliable  and  may  be  handled  without  break- 
ing. Some  growers  have  a  damping  cellar  where  some  of  the  tobacco 
can  be  hung  to  come  in  the  right  order  for  handling.  During  cold 
weather  tobacco  may  be  bulked  down  and  covered  after  it  gets  in 
the  proper  condition  for  handling  and  kept  that  way  for  some  time. 
During  bulking  tobacco  may  improve  in  quality. 


MARKETING 


475 


Tobacco  must  be  handled  only  while  in  a  pliable  condition  or  it 
will  crumble  and  ruin.  It  is  stripped,  unless  it  was  stripped  in 
harvesting,  and  graded.  The  number  of  grades  varies  with  the  kinds 
of  tobacco.  Length  of  leaf,  freedom  from  injuries,  texture,  curing, 
and  other  points  determine  the  grade.  Practical  experience  only 
will  enable  one  to  learn  to  grade  tobacco. 

As  tobacco  is  stripped  and  sorted  it  is  tied  into  hanks.     A  hank 


FIG.  202.— Barn  for  curing  dark  tobacco,  Tennessee. 

is  a  bunch  of  several  leaves.  The  tie  is  made  at  the  butts  of  th6 
leaves  with  a  leaf. 

Storing. — The  stripping  and  tying  may  take  place  so  late  in  the 
season  that  the  tobacco  may  be  taken  to  market  almost  immediately 
afterwards.  In  some  instances  it  is  put  into. cases,  tied  into  bales 
or  prized  into  hogsheads,  while  still  a  larger  part  is  marketed  loose 
in  the  hanks.  While  in  storage  it  usually  ferments  and  the  quality  is 
thus  improved  if  conditions  are  favorable. 

Marketing. — Tobacco  is  mainly  marketed  individually.     Some 


476  TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 

co-operative  associations  have  been  formed  and  sell  the  tobacco  of 
members,  but  this  affects  only  a  small  part  of  the  crop. 

The  tobacco  of  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  is  sold  by  the  auction 
sales  system.  Large  loose-leaf  warehouses  are  provided  in  centers. 
Here  the  farmers  bring  the  crop.  It  is  placed  in  charge  of  the  ware- 
house, is  weighed  and  tagged  with  owner's  name  and  is  piled  on  the 
floor.  Buyers  can  inspect  freely  as  the  auction  goes  on.  As  piles 
are  sold,  the  owners  are  credited  with  the  amount  due  and  the  buyers' 
wagons  remove  the  tobacco.  The  State  requires  that  the  scales  be 
standardized  and  that  weighings  and  all  transactions  be  honestly 
conducted. 

In  the  Baltimore  market  the  State  guarantees  samples  and  has 
State  inspection.  The  samples  of  the  farmers'  tobacco  are  taken  in 
charge  by  commission  men  and  they  and  the  buyer  trade.  Some- 
times the  farmer  fixes  a  minimum  price. 

Lexington,  Kentucky,  has  loose-leaf  auction  sales  and  handles  an 
immense  amount  of  tobacco.  In  some  other  markets  auction  sales 
are  conducted,  but  the  buying  is  done  by  sample.  Only  these  are 
exhibited  in  the  salesroom. 

In  other  markets,  like  Clarksville,  Tennessee,  and  Hopkinsville, 
Kentucky,  most  of  the  tobacco  is  sold  from  the  wagon  by  the  farmer. 
The  buyers  may  bid  on  it,  but  this  is  done  privately.  If  a  co-opera- 
tive association  handles  the  tobacco,  its  salesman  takes  samples  of 
each  farmer's  tobacco  and  sets  the  price  at  which  it  shall  sell. 

Yields  and  Prices. — For  the  ten-year  period,  1900-1909,  the 
average  yields  and  prices  were  as  follows : 

State  Pounds  per  acre  Cents  per  pound 

Connecticut    1657  16.4 

Pennsylvania    1331  8.6 

Maryland    634  6.5 

Virginia 717  7.8 

North  Carolina   ' 622  8.8 

•                Florida    722  31.4 

Ohio > 875  8.6 

Wisconsin   1278  8.6 

Kentucky    833  7.5 

Tennessee ' 734  7.3 

INSECT   ENEMIES 

Tobacco  Horn  Worm. — The  tobacco  horn  worm  is  the  worst 
insect  pest  of  the  crop.  If  left  alone  it  will  usually  completely  ruin 
the  tobacco.  A  combination  of  hand-picking  and  arsenic  poisons 
is  the  practical  means  of  control  (Fig.  203).  When  the  infestation 


CUTWORMS  477 

is  light  hand-picking  may  be  the  most  practical.  It  is  usually 
advisable  to  begin  early,  before  the  worms  become  abundant.  It  is 
often  necessary,  too,  late  in  the  season,  after  spraying  is  stopped. 
Arsenate  of  lead  paste  used  at  the  rate  of  four  pounds  to  fifty  gallons 
of  water  makes  an  effective  spray.  However,  it  is  more  practical  to 
use  the  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  in  a  dust  form.  Mr.  A.  C. 
Morgan,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  finds  that  this  can  be 


FIG.  203.—  The  Northern  Tobacco  Worm  or  Horn  Worm,  (a)  moth;  (6)  larva;  (c) 
pa  (after  Howard).  The  tobacco  worms  appear  in  large  numbers  during  certain  years. 
veral  methods  may  be  practised  to  control  the  pests.  (Wisconsin  Bulletin  237.) 


applied  best  when  mixed  with  equal  part  of  sifted  wood  ashes.  This 
must  be  applied  with  a  powerful  dust  gun  and  when  it  is  calm. 
Three  and  a  half  to  five  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  per  acre  are  thus 
used.  The  arsenate  of  lead  sticks  better  than  Paris  green  and  does 
not  injure  the  tobacco,  while  Paris  green  is  liable  to  do  so.  Fall 
plowing  helps  in  the  control  of  the  horn  worm. 

Cutworms.  —  The  cutworm  often  makes  it  hard  to  get  a  stand 


478  TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 

of  tobacco.  When  the  land  is  badly  infested  with  this  insect  late 
planting,  preceded  by  over  a  month  of  absolutely  clean  culture  to 
keep  all  vegetation  down,  is  often  advisable.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
poison  some  clover  by  wetting  it  with  Paris  green  at  the  rate  of  one 
ounce  to  six  gallons  of  water  and  scattering  this  clover  at  intervals  of 
six  to  eight  feet  late  in  the  evening  so  that  the  worms  will  get  it 
during  the  night  while  fresh. 

Wireworms. — The  eggs  of  wireworms  are  deposited  by  the 
parent  moth  in  weedy  fields  in  July  and  August  and  the  larvae  that 
hatch  remain  in  the  ground  over  winter.  Clean  culture  to  prevent 
the  growth  of  the  weeds  practically  eliminates  the  wireworm  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Cow  peas  or  soy  beans  grown  in  rows  and  culti- 
vated the  summer  before  tobacco  is  planted  practically  insure  no 
damage  from  tobacco  wireworms. 

Budworms. — The  budworm  is  combated  by  applying  Paris 
green  mixed  with  corn  meal  at  the  rate  of  a  tablespoonful  to  a  peck 
of  meal.  This  mixture  is  applied  in  the  bud  during  the  time  of 
attack  two  or  three  times  a  week. 

The  Splitworm. — This  worm  is  the  larva  of  a  very  small  moth. 
The  worm  acts  as  a  leaf  miner  and  does  considerable  damage  to  the 
crop  where  numerous.  It  is  not  generally  serious  yet.  As  a  re- 
medial measure  it  is  suggested  that  the  crop  be  put  out  as  early  as 
practicable ;  if  the  early  infestation  is  serious,  take  off  infested  leaves 
and  destroy.  When  the  crop  is  removed  plow  the  land  and  clean  up 
as  thoroughly  as  possible  to  get  rid  of  the  wintering  insects.  Do  not 
follow  potatoes  with  tobacco,  and  remove  the  potato  field  as  far  from 
tobacco  as  possible. 

'Tobacco  Thrips. —  This  minute  insect  feeds  on  the  surface  of 
tobacco  leaves  and  thus  causes  a  lighter  color  that  may  reduce  the 
selling  price  at  least  fifty  per  cent.  As  it  is  particularly  injurious  to 
shade  tobacco,  the  loss  is  very  great. 

The  adult  appears  to  pass  the  winter  in  the  tobacco  field.  For 
this  reason  rotation  of  crops  and  fall  plowing  of  tobacco  land  and 
cleaning  up  rubbish  would  offer  some  relief.  The  practice  of 
locating  the  plant  bed  in  the  field  is  bad.  As  the  pest  breeds  in 
oats,  this  crop  should  not  be  near  the  tobacco.  Kerosene  emulsion  is 
effective  against  thrips.  It  should  be  used  first  when  the  plants  are 
in  the  plant  bed.  After  they  are  removed  to  the  field  two  sprayings 
a  week  are  advisable.  Spraying  may  be  needed  for  as  long  as  ten 
weeks. 


MOSAIC  DISEASE  OR  CALICO  479 

FUNGOUS    DISEASES 

Bed-rot  or  Damping  Off. — The  rotting  of  young  plants  in  the 
plant  bed  is  usually  spoken  of  as  damping  off.  It  starts  at  or  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Planting  in  new  soil  may  avoid  the 
trouble,  and  the  various  methods  of  treating  the  plant  bed  to  kill  weed 
seed  also  destroy  the  fungus.  Steaming  is  especially  valuable  for 
killing  fungous  diseases,  but  roasting  or  surface  firing  should  be 
effective,  too.  Spraying  with  formalin,  1  to  50,  will  kill  the  fungous 
spores  if  done  before  planting  the  seed.  After  the  disease  is  started 
the  only  way  to  stop  it  is  to  take  off  cheesecloth  and  thus  lower  the 
temperature,  and  to  limit  the  water  so  conditions  will  be  unfavorable 
to  its  development.  Thinning  the  plants  to  admit  air  will  also  Help. 

Root  Rot  or  Black  Root. — This  disease  attacks  roots  of  the 
plants  both  in  the  bed  and  in  the  field,  causing  them  to  turn  brown 
or  black.  It  can  be  controlled  in  the  plant  bed  by  the  means  sug- 
gested for  damping  off,  but  the  only  practical  remedy  in  the  field  is 
to  rotate  and  have  clean  soil  to  set  the  clean  plants  in. 

Brown  and  White  Rusts. — This  disease  is  characterized  by  the 
death  of  small  spots  in  the  leaves.  These  may  run  together  and 
cause  a  considerable  part  of  the  leaf  to  shrivel  up.  It  seems  to  be 
due  to  a  number  of  conditions.  Excess  of  water,  of  certain  fertiliz- 
ing material  or  of  manure,  deep  cultivation,  insufficient  moisture  at 
certain  stages,  moist  weather  succeeded  by  hot  weather,  drops  of 
dew  acting  as  a  lens  focusing  the  sun's  rays  may  cause  the  brown 
or  white  rusts.  No  practical  method  of  control  can  be  suggested. 
However,  tobacco  should  not  be  planted  in  fields  known  to  produce 
the  disease. 

Mosaic  Disease  or  Calico. — This  disease  is  characterized  by  the 
mottled  appearance  of  the  leaf  due  to  the  presence  of  the  light  green 
and  dark  green  areas.  In  pronounced  cases  the  leaf  may  be 
wrinkled  or  corrugated. 

No  parasite  has  thus  far  been  found  associated  with  the  disease, 
but  it  seems  to  be  able  to  perpetuate  itself.  Plant  beds  should  not 
be  placed  where  the  disease  has  been  bad  before.  When  only  a  few 
diseased  plants  occur  they  should  be  taken  up  and  destroyed.  When 
the  disease  is  likely  to  occur  planting  on  poorly  drained  soil  should 
be  avoided.  The  disease  may  be  transmitted  from  one  plant  to 
another  in  suckering  and  topping.  For  this  reason  the  healthy 
plants  should  not  be  topped  by  the  same  person  at  the  same  time 
as  the  diseased  plants. 


480  TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 

Shed  Burn  or  Pole  Rot. — Shed  burn  or  pole  rot  occurs  in  the 
house.  Sometimes  it  never  develops  beyond  small  dark  spots  on  the 
curing  leaf,  and  in  other  cases  it  may  involve  the  entire  leaf  and 
may  in  extreme  cases  destroy  the  house  of  tobacco. 

It  is  controlled  by  the  proper  regulation  of  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  air.  It  does  not  develop  below  60°  F.  nor  in  air 
where  the  humidity  is  below  8!5°  F.  As  the  temperature  is  raised 
the  humidity  must  be  kept  at  the  proper  stage  or  loss  will  follow. 
This  is  often  difficult  in  air  curing. 

Stem  Rot. — Stem  rot  is  a  fungous  disease  that  attacks  the  stem 
in  the  house.  It  is  controlled  by  regulating  heat  and  moisture. 

Wet  Butts  or  Fat  Stem. — This  disease  is  characterized  by  wet, 
discolored  and  soggy  condition  of  the  stem  during  curing.  It  may 
extend  to  the  leaf  veins.  Late  tobacco  is  more  likely  to  be  attacked. 
Open  fires  to  dry  the  air  will  usually  check  the  trouble. 

Black  Rot  in  Sweating. — Black  rot  in  sweating  is  recognized 
by  dark  brown  or  black  color  instead  of  the  normal  color  of  the  cured 
leaf.  It  loses  texture  and  develops  its  own  peculiar  odor  that  is 
detected  by  any  tobacco  man.  It  grows  best  in  a  temperature  of 
about  100°.  To  avoid  trouble  the  tobacco  should  be  cured  out  before 
freezing  weather.  Forced  sweating  that  raises  the  temperature  to 
113°  will  prevent  black  rot.  If  the  moisture  is  low  enough  the 
disease  will  not  develop. 

White  Vein  Disease. — In  this  disease  the  veins  assume  a 
whitened  appearance.  It  occurs  in  drying  weather.  It  may  be  pre- 
vented by  sprinkling  water  on  the  floor  to  keep  up  the  humidity  of 
the  air. 

Molds  or  Rusts. — White  molds  or  mustiness  occurs  to  some 
extent  on  fermenting  tobacco.  It  may  be  controlled  by  the  methods 
suggested  under  black  rot  in  sweating. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Examine  tobacco  soils  in  laboratory. 

2.  Separate  large  and  small  tobacco  seed. 

3.  Study  types  of  cured  leaf. 

4.  Examine  and  use  spraying  machines. 

5.  Make  a  mixture  of  arsenate  of  lead  and  ashes  for  poisoning  horn 
worms. 

FIELD    STUDIES 

1.  Study  tobacco  soils  in  neighborhood. 

2.  Study  growing  tobacco  plants. 

3.  Visit  tobacco  plant  beds. 


QUESTIONS  481 

4.  Compare  methods  of  sterilizing  beds. 

5.  Learn  rate  of  seeding. 

6.  Investigate  distances  of  planting  crop. 

7.  Study  methods  of  transplanting. 

8.  Study  local  practice  as  to  topping,  suckering,  priming  and  control- 
ling insect  pests. 

9.  Study  local  rotations. 

10.  Study  houses  and  housing. 

11.  Study  local  method  of  curing. 

12.  Study  method  of  stripping,  grading,  tying,  storing  and  marketing. 

13.  Investigate  yields  and  prices  in  the  neighborhood. 

14.  Study  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  important  tobacco  States  in  order  of  production. 

2.  Give  botanical  name  of  tobacco. 

3.  Name  three  general  classes  of  tobacco. 

4.  Name  three  types  of  cigar  tobacco. 

5.  Name  three  variety  groups  of  cigar  leaf  tobacco. 

6.  Name  principal  variety  groups  used  in  producing  dark  and  flue-cured 

tobaccos. 

7.  Name  variety  of  tobacco  produced  in  the  blue-grass  section  of  Kentucky. 

8.  On  what  kinds  of  soil  are  the  leading  types  of  tobacco  produced? 

9.  Give  fertilizer  formulae  or  analyses  for  the  different  districts. 

10.  Give  form  of  potash  to  use. 

11.  Name  some  sources  of  nitrogen  for  the  tobacco  crop. 

12.  Name  some  sources  of  phosphoric  acid. 

13.  Give  a  method  of  using  tobacco  stalks  on  tobacco  land. 

14.  Give   location   of   plant  bed,   fertilization,   methods   of    sterilizing   and 

preparing  for  planting. 

15.  Give  method  of  sowing  tobacco  seed,  and  rate  of  seeding. 

16.  Give  after-care  of  bed. 

17.  Give  preparation  of  field  for  tobacco. 

18.  Give  distances  of  planting  in  different  sections. 

19.  Give  methods  of  transplanting  to  field. 

20.  Give  seasons  for  transplanting  in  different  sections. 

21.  Give  cultivation  of  crop. 

22.  Why  is  topping  important  and  how  and  when  done? 

23.  When  is  suckering  done  and  why  is  it  important? 

24.  What,  is  priming  and  when  is  it  done? 

25.  Give  rotations  for  different  sections. 

26.  In  what  States  is  tobacco  grown  under  shade? 

27.  How  is  ripeness  of  the  crop  indicated? 

28.  How  is  the  crop  harvested? 

29.  Give  method  of  air-curing. 

30.  Give  method  of  flue-curing. 

31.  Give  method  of  open-fire  curing. 

32.  Discuss  stripping,  sorting,  tying  and  storing. 

33.  Give  methods  of  marketing  tobacco  in  different  sections. 

34.  Give  some  yields  per  acre  and  prices  per  pound. 

35.  Name  important  insect  enemies  and  give  methods  of  control. 

36.  Name  important  fungous  diseases  and  give  methods  of  control. 


31 


APPENDIX  I 

Legal  Weights  Per  Bushel  of  Seeds  1 


State  or  territory 

>> 
& 

a 

e-grass 

>om  corn 

ikwheat 

3tor  beans 

h 

p 

s 

0 

rn  n  ar, 
nshueked 

1 
*« 

,£3 

en 

&« 

M 

T3 

"ft 

S3 

I" 

fc 

i 

3 

2 

"m  % 
a  a 
be  ^ 

H 

O. 

P 

& 

<u 

PQ 

PQ 

fc 

PQ 

« 

O 

O 

a 

O 

a 

0 

o 

6 

«f" 

W 

o3 

E 

a> 

w 

47 

60 

70 

75 

56 

?° 

Arizona  

45 

a60 

54 

Arkansas  

48 

560 

14 

48 

5? 

60 

70 

74 

56 

??i 

56 

50 

40 

59 

Colorado  

48 
48 

80 
60 

14 

52 

48 

60 
60 

70 

56 
56 

44 

?0 

55 

44 

56 

48 

60 

48 

70 

56 

46 

T> 

47 

660 

14 

59 

60 

70 

56 

30 

56 

1  4 

Idaho  
Illinois  

48 
48 

660 

14 

42 
5? 

46 

60 
60 

70 

56 

56 

56 
56 

44 

Indiana  
Iowa  

48 
48 
48 

60 

60 
60 

14 
14 
14 

30 

50 
52 
50 

46 
46 
46 

60 
60 
60 

c70 
70 
70 

56 
56 
56 

22 

56 
56 

44 
14 
14 

Kentucky             

47 

660 

14 

56 

45 

60 

r/70 

56 

14 

56 

14 

Louisiana  
Maine  
Maryland  

32 
48 

48 

62 
60 

48 

48 

60 

56 
56 

56 

44 

?0 

55 

Michigan  

48 

60 

14 

48 

46 

60 

70 

56 

56 

44 

48 

60 

14 

57 

50 

60 

70 

56 

50 

Mississippi  

48 

660 

14 

48 

46 

60 

72 

56 

3? 

56 

44 

Missouri             

48 

60 

14 

5? 

46 

60 

70 

56 

33 

56 

14 

48 

60 

14 

5? 

60 

70 

56 

56 

14 

Nebraska  

48 

660 

14 

5? 

46 

60 

70 

56 

56 

44 

New  Hampshire  . 

48 

62 
60 

50 

64 

56 
56 

55 

New  York  
North  Carolina  
North  Dakota  
Ohio                             .... 

48 
48 
48 
48 

60 

60 
60 

30 

48 
50 
42 
50 

60 
60 
60 
60 

70 
68 

56 
56 
56 
56 

44 

30 
30 

55 
55 
56 
56 

44 

Oklahoma    

48 

60 

30 

4?, 

60 

70 

56 

56 

Oregon  
Pennsylvania  
Rhode  Island  
South  Carolina     

46 

47 
48 

60 

42 
48 
48 

46 

60 
60 
60 

70 

56 
56 
56 

44 
49 

30 

30 

56 

44 

South  Dakota  
Tennessee  
Texas  

48 
48 
48 

60 
60 
660 

14 

30 

42 

42 
50 
42 

46 

60 
60 
60 

70 
70 
70 

74 
73 

56 
56 
56 

28 
32 

56 
56 
56 

44 
44 

48 

62 

48 

60 

56 

48 

660 

14 

5? 

60 

70 

56 

3?! 

60 

56 

11 

Washington  
West  Virginia  

48 
48 
48 

60 
60 

42 
52 
50 

60 
60 
60 

56 
56 
56 

44 

30 

56 
56 
56 

44 

1  Experiment  Station  Work,  Vol.  II,  No.  15.     Compiled  from  Bulletin  51,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 
a  Small  white  beans  60  pounds,  other  beans  55. 
6  White  beans. 

c  From  harvest  to  December  1,  70  pounds;  after  December  1,  68  pounds. 
d  From  November  1  to  May  1,  70  pounds;  from  May  1  to  November  1,  68  pounds. 

482 


APPENDIX  I 

Legal  Weights  Per  Bushel  of  Seeds  (Continued) 


483 


State  or  territory 

Herd's  grass 

Hungarian 
grass 

| 

_.  to 

la 
|M 

1 
1 

09 
1 

Orchard-grass 

Osage  orange 

Peanuts 

02 

I 

1 

tf 

1 

^5 

bO 

2 

<a 

£ 

£ 
K 

Sorghum 

Soy  beans 

Timothy 

Velvet  beans, 
in  hull 

Wheat 

Alabama  

39! 

60 

56 

fin 

Arizona              .... 

R? 

56 

60 

Arkansas  

50 

3?, 

14 

60 

14 

56 

50 

60 

60 

California  
Colorado  

32 
32 

54 
56 

45 

60 
60 

Connecticut     .... 

45 

3?i 

60 

45 

56 

45 

60 

Delaware  

60 

Florida  

50 

32 
3? 

22 

60 

•1? 

56 
56 

56 

•15 

78 

60 
60 

Idaho  

36 

56 

60 

S? 

56 

45 

60 

Indiana  

50 

3?, 

14 

?3 

56 

45 

60 

Iowa  
Kansas  
Kentucky  
Louisiana  
Maine.  

45 

50 
50 
50 

50 
50 
50 

32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
°6 

14 

32 

60 
60 

56 
56 
56 
32 

30 
56 

45 

45 
45 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

Massachusetts..  .  . 
Michigan  
Minnesota  
Mississippi  

45 

50 
48 
50 

50 

48 
50 

32 
32 
32 
3? 

14 
14 

33 

60 

60 
60 
60 

50 

14 
14 

45 

56 
56 
56 
% 

57 

-I9 

58 

45 
45 
45 
45 

60 
60 
60 
60 

Missouri  
Montana  
Nebraska      

48 
50 
50 

50 
50 

32 
32 
T> 

14 

36 
?•> 

60 
60 
60 

14 

56 
56 
56 

42 
30 

45 
45 
45 

60 
60 
60 

New  Hampshire  .  . 
New  Jersey  .  . 

32 

SO 

60 
60 

56 

56 

60 
60 

New  York  
North  Carolina  .  .  . 
North  Dakota  
Ohio.  
Oklahoma  

45 

50 

50 
50 

32 
32 
32 
32 
S*> 

6C 
60 
60 
60 
60 

45 

44 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

45 

42 
45 

42 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

Oregon  
Pennsylvania  
Rhode  Island  
South  Carolina.  .  . 
South  Dakota  .... 

50 

48 

9Q 

50 
50 

32 
32 
32 

32 

32 

14 

33 

23 

60 

60 
60 

14 

56 
56 
56 

56 
56 

5fl 

45 

42 

AK 

60 
60 
60 

60 
fin 

Texas  
Vermont  
Virginia  
Washington  
West  Virginia  .... 

45 

48 
48 

48 

50 
50 

50 

32 
32 
30 
32 
32 
32 

14 

34 

22 

60 
60 

50 

12 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

45 
45 
45 

45 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

Weights  of  miscellaneous  seeds  not  included  in  the  table:  Amber  cane,  New  Jersey,  57  pounds 
per  bushel;  beggar  weed,  Florida,  62  pounds;  canary  seed,  Tennessee,  60  pounds;  hickory  nuts, 
Tennessee,  50  pounds;  Indian  wheat,  Vermont,  46  pounds;  Japanese  barnyard  millet,  Massachu- 
setts, 35  pounds;  Johnson  grass,  Arkansas,  28  pounds;  Kaffir  corn,  Kansas,  56  pounds;  pop-corn 
in  ear,  Indiana,  70  pounds;  Ohio,  42  pounds;  Tennessee,  70  pounds;  pop-corn,  shelled,  Kansas,  56 
pounds;  spelt,  North  Dakota,  48  pounds;  velvet  grass,  Tennessee,  7  pounds;  walnuts,  Tennessee, 
50  pounds. 


APPENDIX  II 
II.    MARKET  GRADES  OF  HAY  AND  STRAW 

HAY 

No.  i  Timothy  Hay. — Shall  be  timothy,  with  not  more  than  one- 
eighth  (y8)  mixed  with  clover  or  other  tame  grasses,  may  contain  some 
brown  blades,  properly  cured,  good  color,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Timothy  Hay.— Shall  be  timothy,  not  good  enough  for  No.  1, 
not  over  one-fourth  (%)  mixed  with  clover  or  other  tame  grasses,  fair 
color,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  3  Timothy  Hay. — Shall  include  all  timothy  not  good  enough  for 
other  grades,  sound  and  reasonably  well  baled. 

Light  Clover  Mixed  Hay. — Shall  be  timothy  mixed  with  clover.  The 
clover  mixture  not  over  one-third  (Vs),  properly  cured,  sound,  good  color 
and  well  baled. 

No.  i  Clover  Mixed  Hay. — Shall  be  timothy  and  clover  mixed,  with  at 
least  one-half  (%)  timothy,  good  color,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Clover  Mixed  Hay. — Shall  be  timothy  and  clover  mixed,  with 
at  least  one-fourth  (%)  timothy,  reasonably  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  i  Clover  Hay. — Shall  be  medium  clover,  not  over  one-twentieth 
(^  )  other  grasses,  properly  cured,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Clover  Hay. — Shall  be  clover,  sound  and  reasonably  well  baled, 
not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

Sample  Hay. — Shall  be  sound,  reasonably  well  baled,  mixed,  grassy, 
threshed  or  hay  not  covered  by  other  grades. 

No  Grade  Hay. — Shall  include  all  hay,  musty,  or  in  any  way  unsound. 

Choice  Prairie  Hay. — Shall  be  upland  hay  of  bright,  natural  color, 
well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  3  per  cent  weeds. 

No.  i  Prairie  Hay. — Shall  be  upland  and  may  contain  one-quarter 
midland,  both  of  good  color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  8 
per  cent  weeds. 

No.  2  Prairie  Hay. — Shall  be  upland,  of  fair  color,  and  may  contain 
one-half  midland,  both  of  good  color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may 
contain  12^  per  cent  weeds. 

No.  3  Prairie  Hay. — Shall  include  hay  not  good  enough  for  other 
grades  and  not  caked. 

No.  i  Midland  Hay. — Shall  be  midland  hay  of  good  color,  well 
cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  3  per  cent  weeds. 

No.  2  Midland  Hay. — Shall  be  of  fair  color,  or  slough  hay  of  good 
color,  and  may  contain  12%  per  cent  of  weeds. 

Packing  Hay. — Shall  include  all  wild  hay  not  good  enough  for  other 
grades  and  not  caked. 

Sample  Prairie  Hay. — Shall  include  all  hay  not  good  enough  for  other 
grades. 

ALFALFA 

Choice  Alfalfa. — Shall  be  reasonably  fine  leafy  alfalfa  of  bright  green 
color,  properly  cured,  sound,  sweet,  and  well  baled. 

No.  i  Alfalfa. — Shall  be  reasonably  coarse  alfalfa,  of  a  bright  green 
color,  or  reasonably  fine  leafy  alfalfa  of  a  good  color  and  may  contain  2 
per  cent  of  foreign  grasses,  5  per  cent  of  air  bleached  hay  on  outside  of 
bale  allowed,  but  must  be  sound  and  well  baled. 
484 


APPENDIX  II  485 

Standard  Alfalfa. — May  be  of  green  color,  of  coarse  or  medium  texture, 
and  may  contain  5  per  cent  foreign  matter;  or  it  may  be  of  green  color, 
of  coarse  or  medium  texture,  20  per  cent  bleached  and  2  per  cent  foreign 
matter;  or  it  may  be  of  greenish  cast,  of  line  stem  and  clinging  foliage,  and 
may  contain  5  per  cent  foreign  matter.  All  to  be  sound,  sweet  and  well 
baled. 

No.  2  Alfalfa. — Shall  be  any  sound,  sweet  and  well-baled  alfalfa,  not 
good  enough  for  standard,  and  may  contain  10  per  cent  foreign  matter. 

No.  3  Alfalfa, — May  contain  25  per  cent  stack  spotted  hay,  but  must 
be  dry  and  not  contain  more  than  8  per  cent  of  foreign  matter;  or  it  may 
be  of  green  color  and  may  contain  50  per  cent  of  foreign  matter;  or  it  may 
be  set  alfalfa  and  may  contain  5  per  cent  foreign  matter.  All  to  be 
reasonably  well  baled. 

No  Grade  Alfalfa. — Shall  include  all  alfalfa  not  good  enough  for 
No.  3. 

STRAW 

Baled  straw  is  abundantly  sold  in  the  large  markets. 

No.  i  Straight  Rye-Straw. — Shall  be  in  large  bales,  clean,  bright, 
long  rye-straw,  pressed  in  bundles,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Straight  Rye-Straw. — Shall  be  in  large  bales,  long  rye-straw, 
pressed  in  bundles,  sound  and  well  baled,  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  i  Tangled  Rye-Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean  rye-straw, 
good  color,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Tangled  Rye-Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean,  may  be  some 
stained,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  i  Wheat-Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean  wheat-straw,  sound 
and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Wheat-Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean;  may  be  some  stained, 
but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  i  Oat-Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean  oat-straw,  sound  and 
well  baled. 

No.  2  Oat-Straw. — Shall  be  reasonably  clean ;  may  be  some  stained, 
but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 


APPENDIX  III 
GRADES  OF  GRAIN 

Here  are  given  the  grades  of  grain  adopted  by  the  Grain  Dealers' 
National  Association  at  the  13th  Annual  Convention  held  in  Indianapolis, 
October  6,  7,  8,  1909,  together  with  the  grades  for  corn  adopted  by  the  United 
States  Government  and  effective  July  1,  1914.  Reported  by  Charles  Quinn, 
Secretary,  Grain  Dealers'  National  Association,  Toledo,  Ohio. 

WHITE    WINTER   WHEAT 

No.  i  White  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  varieties  of  pure,  soft, 
white  winter  wheat,  sound,  plump,  dry,  sweet  and  clean,  and  weigh  not  less 
than  58  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  White  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  varieties  of  soft, 
white  winter  wheat,  dry,  sound  and  clean,  and  shall  not  contain  more  than 
8  per  cent  of  soft  red  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  56  pounds  to 
the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  White  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  varieties  of  soft, 
white  winter  wheat.  It  may  contain  5  per  cent  of  damaged  grains  other 
than  skin-burnt  wheat  and  may  contain  10  per  cent  of  soft,  red  winter 
wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  53  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  White  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  varieties  of  soft, 
white  winter  wheat  not  fi£  for  a  higher  grade  in  consequence  of  being  poor 
quality,  damp,  musty  or  dirty,  and  shall  not  contain  more  than  10  per 
cent  of  soft,  red  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

RED    WINTER    WHEAT 

No.  i  Red  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  be  pure,  soft,  red  winter  wheat  of 
both  light  and  dark  colors,  sound,  sweet,  plump  and  well  cleaned,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  GO  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Red  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  be  soft,  red  winter  wheat  of  both 
light  and  dark  colors,  sound,  sweet  and  clean,  shall  not  contain  more  than 
5  per  cent  of  white  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  58  pounds  to 
the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Red  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  be  sound,  soft,  red  winter  wheat 
not  clean  or  plump  enough  for  No.  2,  shall  not  contain  more  than  8  per 
cent  of  white  winter  wheat,  and  weigh  no;t  less  than  55  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Red  Winter  Wheat.-r-Shall  be  soft,  red  winter  wheat,  shall 
contain  not  more  than  8  per  cent  of  white  winter  wheat.  It  may  be  damp, 
musty  or  dirty,  but  must  be  cool,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50  pounds  to 
the  measured  bushel. 

HARD   WINTER   WHEAT 

No.  i  Hard  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  varieties  of  pure, 
hard  winter  wheat,  sound,  plump,  dry,  sweet  and  well  cleaned,  and  weigh- 
not  less  than  61  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Hard  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter 
wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors,  dry,  sound,  sweet  and  clean,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  59  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 
486 


APPENDIX  III  487 

No.  3  Hard  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter 
wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors,  not  clean  or  plump  enough  for  No.  2, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  50  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Hard  Winter  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  varieties  of  hard  winter 
wheat  of  both  light  and  dark  colors.  It  may  be  damp,  musty  or  dirty  and 
weigh  not  less  than  50  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

NORTHERN    SPRING    WHEAT 

No.  i  Hard  Spring  Wheat. — Shall  be  sound,  bright,  sweet,  clean,  and 
consist  of  over  50  per  cent  of  the  hard  Scotch  Fife,  and  weigh  not  less 
than  58  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  i  Northern  Spring  Wheat. — Must  be  Northern  grown  spring 
wheat,  sound,  clean,  and  of  good  milling  quality,  and  must  not  contain  less 
than  50  per  cent  of  the  hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less 
than  57  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Northern  Spring  Wheat. — Shall  be  Northern  grown  spring 
wheat,  not  clean  enough  or  sound  enough  for  No.  1,  and  must  contain  not 
less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat,  and  must  weigh 
not  less  than  56  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Northern  Spring  Wheat. — Shall  be  composed  of  inferior 
shrunken  Northern  grown  spring  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  54  pounds 
to  the  measured  bushel,  and  must  contain  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the 
hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat. 

No.  4  Northern  Spring  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  inferior  Northern 
grown  spring  wheat  that  is  badly  shrunken  or  damaged  and  must  contain 
not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  hard  varieties  of  spring  wheat,  and  shall 
weigh  not  less  than  49  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

SPRING    WHEAT 

No.  i  Spring  Wheat. — Shall  be  sound,  plump  and  well  cleaned,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  59  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Spring  Wheat. — Shall  be  sound,  clean,  of  a  good  milling  quality 
and  weigh  not  less  than  57%  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Spring  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  inferior,  shrunken  or  dirty 
spring  wheat,  and  weigh  not  less  than  53  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Spring  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  spring  wheat  damp,  musty, 
grown,  badly  bleached,  or  from  any  cause  which  renders  it  unfit  for  No.  3, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  49  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

WHITE   SPRING   WHEAT 

White  Spring  Wheat. — The  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  3  and  4  White  Spring 
Wheat  shall  correspond  with  the  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2,  3  and  4  Spring  Wheat, 
except  that  they  shall  be  of  the  white  variety. 

DURUM  (MACARONI)  WHEAT 

No.  i  Durum  Wheat. — Shall  be  bright,  sound,  dry,  well  cleaned  and 
be  composed  of  durum,  commonly  known  as  macaroni  wheat,  and  weigh  not 
less  than  60  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Durum  Wheat. — Shall  be  dry,  clean  and  of  good  milling  quality. 
It  shall  include  all  durum  wheat  that  "for  any  reason  is  not  suitable  for 
No.  1  durum,  and  weigh  not  less  than  58  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Durum  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  durum  wheat  bleached, 
shrunken,  or  for  any  cause  unfit  for  No.  2,  and  weigh  not  less  than  55 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 


488  APPENDIX  III 

No.  4  Durum  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  durum  wheat  that  is  badly 
bleached  or  for  any  cause  unfit  for  No.  3,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

VELVET  CHAFF   WHEAT 

No.  i  Velvet  Chaff  Wheat. — Shall  be  bright,  sound  and  well  cleaned, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  58  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Velvet  Chaff  Wheat. — Shall  be  sound,  dry,  clean,  may  be 
slightly  bleached,  or  shrunken,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  57  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Velvet  Chaff  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  wheat  that  is  bleached, 
smutty  or  for  any  other  cause  unfit  for  No.  2,  and  weigh  not  less  than  55 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Velvet  Chaff  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  wheat  that  is  very 
smutty,  badly  bleached  and  grown  or  for  any  other  cause  unfit  for  No.  3. 

PACIFIC    COAST    WHEAT 

No.  i  Pacific  Coast  Red  Wheat. — Shall  be  dry,  sound,  clean  and  free 
irom  smut  and  weigh  not  less  than  59  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Pacific  Coast  Red  Wheat. — Shall  be  dry,  sound,  clean  and  only 
slightly  tainted  with  smut  and  alkali,  and  weigh  not  less  than  58  pounds 
to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Pacific  Coast  Red  Wheat. — Shall  include  all  other  Pacific 
Coast  red  wheat.  It  may  be  smutty  or  musty,  or  from  any  other  reason 
unfit  for  flouring  purposes,  and  weigh  not  less  than  54  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

Note. — Pacific  Coast  White  Wheat  shall  be  graded  according  to  the 
rules  for  Pacific  Coast  Red  Wheat.  In  case  of  a  mixture  of  Pacific  Coast 
wheat  with  our  home-grown  wheat,  red  or  white,  such  mixture  shall  be 
graded  "  Pacific  Coast  Mixed  Wheat/' 

Note. — The  grades  of  Pacific  White  and  Pacific  Red  Wheat  are  to 
include  all  such  wheats  as  are  grown  in  the  extreme  Northwest  and  on 
the  Pacific  slope  from  either  spring  or  winter  seeding. 

MIXED   WHEAT 

Mixed  Wheat. — In  case  of  an  appreciable  mixture  of  hard  and  soft 
wheat,  red  and  white  wheat  (except  as  provided  in  the  rule  of  red  winter, 
white  winter  and  northern  spring  wheat),  durum,  and  spring  wheat  any  of 
them  with  each  other,  it  shall  be  graded  according  to  the  quality  thereof, 
and  the  kind  of  wheat  predominating  shall  be  classed  as  No.  1,  2,  3  and  4 
mixed  wheat,  and  the  inspector  shall  make  notation  describing  its  char- 
acter. 

RYE 

No.  I  Rye. — Shall  be  dry,  sound,  plump,  sweet  and  well  cleaned,  and 
shall  weigh  not  less  than  57  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Rye. — Shall  be  dry,  sound  and  contain  not  more  than  1  per  cent 
of  other  grain  or  foreign  matter,  and  weigh  not  less  than  55  pounds  to 
the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Rye. — Shall  include  inferior  rye  not  unsound,  but  from  any 
other  cause  not  good  enough  for  No.  2,  and  weigh  not  less  than  53  pounds 
to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Rye. — May  be  damp,  musty  or  dirty,  and  weigh  not  less  than  50 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 


APPENDIX  III  489 

WHITE    OATS 

No.  i  White  Oats. — Shall  be  white,  dry,  sweet,  sound,  bright,  clean, 
free  from  other  grain  and  weigh  not  less  than  32  pounds  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

No.  2  White  Oats. — Shall  be  95  per  cent  white,  dry,  sweet,  shall  con- 
tain not  more  than  1  per  cent  of  dirt  and  1  per  cent  of  other  grain,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  29  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Standard  White  Oats. — Shall  be  92  per  cent  white,  dry,  sweet,  shall 
not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  and  2  per  cent  of  other  grain, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  28  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  White  Oats. — Shall  be  sweet,  90  per  cent  white,  shall  not  con- 
tain more  than  3  per  cent  of  dirt  and  5  per  cent  of  other  grain,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  24  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  White  Oats. — Shall  be  90  per  cent  white,  may  be  damp,  dam- 
aged, musty  or  very  dirty. 

Notice. — Yellow  oats  shall  not  be  graded  better  than  No.  3  white  oats. 

MIXED  OATS 

No.  i  Mixed  Oats. — Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry,  sweet, 
sound,  bright,  clean,  free  from  other  grain  and  weigh  not  less  than  32 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Mixed  Oats. — Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry,  sweet,  shall 
not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  and  2  per  cent  of  other  grain,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  28  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Mixed  Oats. — Shall  be  sweet  oats  of  various  colors,  shall  not 
contain  more  than  3  per  cent  of  dirt  and  5  per  cent  of  other  grain,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  24  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Mixed  Oats. — Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  damp,  damaged, 
musty  or  very  dirty. 

RED    Oil    RUST    PROOF    OATS 

No.  i  Red  Oats  or  Rust  Proof. — Shall  be  pure,  red,  sound,  bright, 
sweet,  clean  and  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  32  pounds 
to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Red  Oats  or  Rust  Proof. — Shall  be  seven-eighths  red,  sweet, 
dry,  and  shall  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  dirt  or  foreign  matter, 
and  weigh  30  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Red  Oats  or  Rust  Proof. — Shall  'be  sweet,  seven-eighths  red, 
shall  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  24  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Red  Oats  or  Rust  Proof. — Shall  be  seven-eighths  red,  may  be 
damp,  musty  or  very  dirty. 

WHITE    CLIPPED    OATS 

No.  I  White  Clipped  Oats. — Shall  be  white,  clean,  dry,  sweet,  sound, 
bright,  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  35  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

No.  2  White  Clipped  Oats. — Shall  be  95  per  cent  white,  dry,  sweet, 
shall  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter  and  weigh 
not  less  than  32  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  White  Clipped  Oats. — Shall  be  sweet,  90  per  cent  white,  shall 
not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and  weigh  not 
less  than  30  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  White  Clipped  Oats. — Shall  be  90  per  cent  white,  damp,  dam- 
aged, musty  or  dirty,  and  weigh  not  less  than  30  pounds  to  the  measured 
bushel. 


490 


APPENDIX  III 


MIXED   CLIPPED   OATS 

No.  i  Mixed  Clipped  Oats. — Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry, 
sweet,  sound,  bright,  clean,  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than 
35  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Mixed  Clipped  Oats. — Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry, 
sweet,  shall  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and 
weig^>  not  less  than  32  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Mixed  Clipped  Oats. — Shall  be  sweet  oats  of  various  colors, 
shall  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  30  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Mixed  Clipped  Oats. — Shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  damp, 
damaged,  musty  or  dirty,  and  weigh  not  less  than  30  pounds  to  the  measured 
bushel. 

Note. — Inspectors  are  authorized  when  requested  by  shippers  to  give 
weight  per  bushel  instead  of  grade  on  Clipped  White  Oats  and  Clipped 
Mixed  Oats  from  private  elevators. 

PURIFIED    OATS 

Purified  Oats. — All  oats  that  have  been  chemically  treated  or  purified 
shall  be  classed  as  purified  oats,  and  inspectors  shall  give  the  test  weight 
on  each  car  or  parcel  that  may  be  so  inspected. 


Government  Grades. — The  following  grades  for  corn  have  been  adopted 
by  the  United  States  Government.  These  grades  went  into  effect  July  1, 
1914. 


Grade 
classification 

MAXIMUM  PERCENTAGES  OF 

Damaged  corn 

Foreign  material 

"Cracked"  corn, 

White,  Yellow 
and 

Moisture 

including  dirt, 
cob,  other 

not  including 
finely  broken 

Mixed  Corn 

grain,  finely 

corn.     (See 

broken  corn,  etc. 

General  Rule  9.) 

No.  1 

14.0 

2 

'  Exclusive 

1 

2 

of  heat 

2 

15.5 

4  < 

damaged  or 

1 

3 

mahogany 

3 

17.5 

6 

kernels 

2 

4 

4 

19.5 

8 

May  include 

i^  % 

2 

4 

heat  damaged 

5 

21.5 

10 

or  mahogany 

•    1% 

3 

5 

kernels  not 

6 

235 

15 

to  exceed 

3% 

5 

7 

"Sample" 

See  General  Rule  No.  6 

or  Sample  Grade. 

General  Rules. — 1.  The  corn  in  grades  No.  1  to  No.  5,  inclusive,  must 
be  sweet. 

2.  White  corn,  all  grades,  shall  be  at  least  98  per  cent  white. 

3.  Yellow  corn,  all  grades,  shall  be  at  least  95  per  cent  yellow. 

4.  Mixed  corn,  all  grades,  shall  include  corn  of  various  colors  not  com- 
ing within  the  limits  for  color  as  provided  for  under  white  or  yellow  corn. 


APPENDIX  III  491 

5.  In   addition  to   the  various   limits   indicated,   No.   6   corn   may  be 
musty,  sour,  and  may  also  include  corn  of  inferior  quality,  such  as  im- 
mature and  badly  blistered. 

6.  All    corn    that   does    not   meet  the   requirements   of   either    of    the 
six   numerical  grades   by   reason  of  an  excessive  percentage   of   moisture, 
damaged  kernels,  foreign  matter  or  "cracked"  corn;  or  corn  that  is  hot, 
heat  damaged,  fire  burnt,  infested  with  live  weevil,  or  otherwise  of  dis- 
tinctly low  quality,  shall  be  classed  as  sample  grade. 

7.  In  No.  6  and  sample  grade,  reasons  for  so  grading  shall  be  stated  on 
the  inspector's  certificate. 

8.  Finely  broken  corn  shall  include  all  broken  particles  of  corn  that 
will  pass  through  a  perforated  metal  sieve  with  round  holes  nine  sixty- 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

9.  "  Cracked  "  corn  shall  include  all  coarsely  broken  pieces  of  kernels 
that  will   pass   through   a  -perforated  metal   sieve  with   round   holes   one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  except  that  the  finely  broken  corn  as  pro- 
vided for  under  Rule  8  shall  not  be  considered  as  "  cracked  "  corn. 

10.  It  is  understood  that  the  damaged  corn;  the  foreign  material  in- 
cluding pieces  of  cob,  dirt,  finely  broken  corn,  other  grains,  etc.,  and  the 
coarsely    broken   or   "  cracked "   corn    as   provided    for   under   the  various 
grades,  shall  be  such  as  occur  naturally  in  corn  when  handled  under  good 
commercial  conditions. 

11.  Moisture  percentages,  as  provided  for  in  these  grade  specifications, 
shall  conform  to  results  obtained  by  the  standard  method  and  tester  as  de- 
scribed  in   Circular  72,   Bureau  of   Plant  Industry,   U.   S.   Department  of 
Agriculture. 

MILO    MAIZE 

No.  i  Milo  Maize. — Shall  be  mixed  milo  maize  of  choice  quality, 
sound,  dry  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Milo  Maize. — Shall  be  mixed  milo  maize,  sound,  dry  and  clean. 

No.  3  Milo  Maize. — Shall  be  mixed  milo  maize,  not  dry,  clean  or 
sound  enough  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  Milo  Maize. — Shall  include  all  mixed  milo  maize  that  is  badly 
damaged,  damp,  musty  or  very  dirty. 

Milo  maize  that  is  wet  or  in  heating  condition-  shall  not  be  graded. 

KAFFIR  COBN 

No.  i  White  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be  pure  white  of  choice  quality, 
sound,  dry  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  White  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be.  seven-eighths  white,  sound,  dry 
and  clean. 

No.  3  White  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be  seven-eighths  white,  not  dry,  clean 
or  sound  enough  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  White  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be  seven-eighths  white  that  is  badly 
damaged,  damp,  musty  or  very  dirty. 

No.  i  Red  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be  pure  red  corn,  of  choice  quality, 
sound,  dry  and  well  cleaned. 

No.  2  Red  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be  seven-eighths  red,  sound,  dry  and 
clean. 

No.  3  Red  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be  seven-eighths  red,  not  dry,  clean  or 
sound  enough  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  Red  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be  seven-eighths  red  that  is  badly  dam- 
aged, damp,  musty  or  very  dirty. 

No.  i  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be  mixed  kaffir  corn  of  choice  quality, 
sound,  dry  and  well  cleaned. 


492  APPENDIX  III 

No.  2  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be  mixed  kaflir  corn,  sound,  dry  and  clean. 

No.  3  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  be  mixed  kaflir  corn,  not  dry,  clean  or 
sound  enough  for  No.  2. 

No.  4  Kaffir  Corn. — Shall  include  all  mixed  kaiiir  corn  that  is  badly 
damaged,  damp,  musty  or  very  dirty. 

Kaffir  corn  that  is  wet  or  in  heating  condition  shall  not  be  graded. 

BARLEY 

(These  Barley  Rules  have  been  adopted  by  the  Barley  Association  of  the 

United  States.) 

No.  I  Barley. — Shall  be  sound,  plump,  bright,  clean  and  free  from 
other  grain,  and  not  scoured  or  clipped,  shall  weigh  not  less  than  48  pounds 
to  th<e  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Barley. — Shall  be  sound,  of  healthy  color  (bright  or  straw 
color),  reasonably  clean  and  reasonably  free  from  other  grains  and  seeds, 
and  not  scoure'd  nor  clipped,  shall  weigh  not  less  than  46  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Barley. — Shall  include  slightly  shrunken  or  otherwise  lightly 
damaged  barley,  not  good  enough  for  No.  2,  and  not  scoured  nor  clipped, 
shall  weigh  not  less  than  44  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  Barley. — Shall  include  barley  fit  for  malting  purposes,  not  good 
enough  for  No.  3. 

No.  i  Feed  Barley. — Shall  test  not  less  than  40  pounds  to  the  meas- 
ured bushel,  shall  be  cool  and  reasonably  free  from  other  grain  and  seeds, 
and  not  good  enough  for  No.  4,  and  may  include  barley  with  a  strong 
ground  smell,  or  a  slightly  musty  or  bin  smell. 

Rejected  Barley. — Shall  include  all  barley  testing  under  40  pounds 
to  the  measured  bushel,  or  barley  which  is  badly  musty  or  badly  damaged, 
and  not  good  enough  to  grade  "  feed  "  barley,  except  that  barley  which  has 
been  chemically  treated  shall  not  be  graded  at  all. 

Bay  Brejving  Barley. — The  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2  and  3  Bay  Brewing 
barley  shall  conform  in  all  respects  to  the  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2  and  3  barley, 
except  that  they  shall  be  of  the  Bay  Brewing  variety,  grown  in  life  far 
West  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Chevalier  Barley. — The  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2  and  3  Chevalier  barley 
shall  conform  in  all  respects  to  the  grades  of  Nos.  1,  2  and  3  barley,  ex- 
cept that  they  shall  be  of  the  Chevalier  variety,  grown  in  the  far  West  and 
on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Bay  Brewing  Mixed  Barley. — In  case  of  admixture  of  Bay  Brewing 
barley  with  barley  of.  other  varieties,  it  shall  be  graded  according  to  the 
quality  thereof  and  classed  as  1,  2,  3  Bay  Brewing  Mixed  Barley. 

Chevalier  Mixed  Barley. — In  case  of  admixture  of  Chevalier  barley 
with  barley  of  other  varieties,  it  shall  be  graded  according  to  the  quality 
thereof  and  classed  as  1,  2,  3  Chevalier  Mixed  Barley. 

WINTER   BARLEY 

No.  i  Winter  Barley. — Shall  be  plump,  bright,  sound  and  clean,  free 
from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  48  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  Winter  Barley. — Shall  be  sound,  plump,  may  be  stained,  shall 
contain  not  more  than  3  per  cent  of  foreign  matter,  and  weigh  not  less 
than  4G  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  Winter  Barley. — Shall  include  all  shrunken,  stained  and  dirty 
barley,  shall  contain  not  more  than  5  per  cent  of  foreign  matter,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  44  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 


APPENDIX  III  493 

No.  4  Winter  Barley. — Shall  include  all  barley  not  lit  for  a  higher 
grade  in  consequence  of  being  poor  quality,  damp,  musty  or  dirty;  shall 
contain  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  foreign  matter  and  weigh  not  less 
than  40  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

SAMPLE   GRADES GENERAL  RULE 

All  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye  and  corn  that  is  in  a  heated  condition, 
souring,  or  too  damp  to  be  safe  for  warehousing,  or  that  is  badly  bin-burnt, 
lire-burnt,  lire-smoked,  or  badly  damaged,  mixed  with  garli/c,  onions,  or 
containing  live  weevil,  exceedingly  dirty,  or  where  different  kinds  of  grain 
are  badly  mixed  with  one  another,  shall  be  classed  as  Sample  Grade,  and 
the  inspector  shall  make  notations  as  to  quality  and  condition. 

Notice. — The  inspection  departments  shall  in  no  case  make  a  grade 
of  grain  above  that  of  the  poorest  quality  found  in  any  lot  of  grain  in- 
spected, when  it  has  evidently  been  plugged  for  the  purpose  of  deception, 
or  otherwise  improperly  loaded.  Wheat  which  has  been  subjected  to  scour- 
ing, or  clipping,  or  any  process  equivalent  thereto,  shall  not  be  graded 
higher  than  a  3. 

New. — The  word  "  NEW  "  shall  be  inserted  in  each  certificate  of  in- 
spection of  a  newly  harvested  crop  of  oats  until  the  fifteenth  day  of 
August;  of  rye,  until  the  first  day  of  September;  of  wheat,  until  the  first  day 
of  November,  and  of  barley,  until  the  first  day  of  November  of  each  year. 

This  change  shall  be  construed  as  establishing  new  grades  for  the 
times  specified,  to  conform  to  the  existing  grades  of  grain  in  all  par- 
ticulars, except  the  distinctions  hereby  established  between  the  new  and 
the  old  crop,  and  shall  apply  to  grain  inspected  from  store  for  two  months 
after  the  time  respectively  above  specified. 


INDEX 


Acclimatization  of  potatoes,  271 
Acreage  of  forage  crops,  302 
Adaptation  of  corn,  56 

of  wheat,   129 

of  forage  plants,  311 
Alfalfa,   375,   384 

classification,    386 

climatic   requirements,   385 

diseases   and   enemies,   395 

harvesting,  392 

hay  market  grades,  484 

inoculation  of,  390 

insects  affecting,  396 

life  period,   388 

lime  for,  389 

methods  of  seeding,  390 

origin  and  history,  384 

pasturing    alfalfa,    394 

pollination,    389 

roots  of,   387 

seed   crop,    393 
Alsike   clover,   406 

climate  and  soils  for,  407 
culture,  408 

classification,    178 

hulless,  179 

market  grades,  492 

production,  3,  174 

quality   in,    184 

six-row,  181 

two-row,   183 

winter  and  spring,  180 

Barnyard  manure,  38 

millet,  372 
Beets,  450 

classification,  450 

composition,  452 

fertilizers  for,  453 

harvesting,  454 
.  mangels,  451 
Bent  grasses,  350 
Bermuda  grass,  364 
Blue-grasses,  353 

Canada,   356 

Kentucky,   353 
Bordeaux  mixture,  282 
Bread  wheats,  111 


Breeding   corn,   59 

potatoes,  285 

tobacco,  464 
Brome-grass,   358 
Broom  corn,  248,   254 

millet,  372 

Buckwheat,  as  green  manure,  202 
•  classification,    199 

climate  for,  200 

composition  of,  198 

culture,  201 

description   of   plant,    197 

fertilizers  for,  200 

harvesting,  201 

production,  196 

relationships,    197 

Carrots,   456 

Cereals,    comparative    study   of,    2 
29 

composition  of,  27 

foods,   86 

general  structure  of,   29 
Classification  of  alfalfa,  386 

barley,   178 

buckwheat,  199 

corn,  44 

cotton,  207 

cotton    fibers,    213 

cow   peas,   420 

forage  crops,  301 

legumes,    375 

oats,   146 

peanuts,  440 

potatoes,   259 

red  clover,  400 

rye,   191 

sorghum,  245 

wheat,    109 
Climate  for  alfalfa,  385 

corn,  55,  72 

cotton,  218 

oats,   148 

potatoes,  264 

redtop,  349 

sorghums,  248 

sweet   potatoes,   291 

timothy,   343 

(495) 


496 


INDEX 


Clover  hay  market  grades,  484 
Clovers,  375,  398 

alsike,    406 

burr,  415 

crimson,  414 

Japan,  417 

red,  398 

sweet,  410 

white,  408 
Composition  of  buckwheat,   198 

cereals,  27 

effect  of  climate,  28 

flax,  241 

peanuts,  441 

plants,  7 

potatoes,  264 

tobacco,  459 

Avheat  plants,  125,  126 
Corn,  41 

adaptation  of,  56 

belt,  41 

classification,  44 

cost  of  producing,  85 

crossing,  59 

crows  in,  89 

depth  of  cultivation,  77 

distribution  of    (map),  42 

effect  of  climate,  55 
rainfall,  56 
weeds,  77 

germination  tests,  63 

growth  of,  48 

harvesting,  80 

hybridizing,   51 

improvement  of,  59 

judging,  93 

length  of  growing  season,  56 

market  grades  of,  490 

origin  of,  43 

outline  for  describing,  97 

planting,  69 

preparation  of  land,  67 

production  of,  41 

proportion  of  parts,  84 

roots,  49 

score  card,  102 

selection  of  seed,  60 

shrinkage  of,  85 

soils  for,  55 

study  of  types,  91 

tassel  and  ear,  49 

tillage.  74 

tillers,  49 

uses  of,  86 

varieties  to  grow,  58 


Corn,  varieties  to  grow,  number  of, 
48 

yield  of,  73 
Ccst  of  producing  corn,  85 

wheat,  133 
Cotton,  by-products,  215 

classification,   207 

climate   for,   218 

cultivation,  229 

culture,    218,    225 

diseases,  235 

early   history,  205 

fertilizers    for,    221 

fiber,   212 

gin,  206 

harvesting,  231 

insect  enemies,  234 

marketing  the  crop,  233 

planting  on  ridges  vs.  beds,  227 

production,  203 

region  suited  to,  219 

seed,    214 

soils  for,  220   . 
Cow  peas,  376,  420 

adaptations,  422 

classifications,    420 

culture,  422 

harvesting,  423 

insects   and   diseases,   424 
Crimson  clover,  414 
Cropping  systems,  effects  of,  33 

rotations,  34 

Crops,  classification,  origin  and  dis- 
tribution, 1 

most  important,  3 

number  cultivated,  2 


Degeneration    of    potatoes,    266 
Dent  corn,   47 
Diseases  of  alfalfa,  395 

corn,  88 

cotton,  235 

flax,  243 

oats,   170 

potatoes,  279 

sweet   potatoes,   299 

timothy,   347 

tobacco,  479 

Distribution  of  forage  crops,   303 
Dodder  on   alfalfa,   395 
Durra  corn,  247 


Elements  required  for  plant-growth,  5 
Euchlsena  Mexicana,  43 


INDEX 


497 


Fertilization  of  alfalfa,  389 

of  corn,  50 

cross-  and  self-,  25 
Fertilizers  for  buckwheat,  200 

cotton,  221 

grass,    338 

oats,   158 

potatoes,   2G7 

sweet   potatoes,   292 

timothy,  346 

tobacco,  402 

wheat,    125 
Fertilizers,  applying,  36,  340 

testing  effect  of,  11 

when  applied,  38 
Fiber  of  cotton,  212 
Field  peas,  376.  430 
culture,   431 

pea  weevil,  432 
Flax  culture,  242 

description.    239 

diseases,  243 

harvesting,   243 

production,  239 
Flint   corn,    47 

Florida  beggar  weed,  376,  418 
Forage  crops,   acreage,   302 

classification   and   distribu- 
tion, 301 

production    of    hay,    305 
types,   304 

Formalin  treatment  for  smut,   101 
Foxtail  millet,  369 

German  millet,  370 
Germination  of  barley,  184 

seeds,   15 

tests,  18 

corn,  63 

grass  seeds,  324,  328 
Grasses,  adaptation  of  types,  311 

bunch  and  sod,  310 

care  of,  338 

characteristics  of,  307 

fertilizers  for,  338 

important    characters,    307 

improvement  of,  309 

life  period,   314 

manure  for,  340 

mixtures,  317 

for  meadows,  317 
for  pastures,  318 
permanent  pastures,   320 
temporary  pastures,  319 


Grasses,  number  cultivated,  307 

palatability  of,  312 

permanent,   315 

roots   of,    309 

wet  or   dry   land,   313 
Grass   seeds,  adulteration  of,   325 
amount  to  sow,  327 

germination  of,  324,  328 

identification    of,    330 

sowing,   326 

where   produced,    325 

Hard  seeds,  323 
Harvesting,  alfalfa,  392 

buckwheat,   201 

corn,  80 

cotton,   231 

flax,   243 

oats,   167 

potatoes,  277 

rye,  193 

s,orghums,    252 

sweet   potatoes,   296 

wheat,    132 
Hay,  time  to  cut  timothy,  346 

production  and  value,  301,  305 
Hessian  fly,  139 
Horse    bean,    437 
Hot-bed  for  sweet  potatoes,  294 
Hungarian  millet,  370 
Hybridizing  corn,  59 

Inoculation  of,  alfalfa,  390 

legumes,    381 
Insects  enemies  of  alfalfa,  396 

corn,  88 

cotton,  234 

cow  peas,  424 

oats,   170 

peanuts,  447 

potato,  279 

rye,  194 

tobacco,  476 

wheat,  139 
Intertillage,  function  of,  77 

reasons  for,  75 
Italian   rye-grass,   363 

Japan  clover,  376,  417 
Japanese  barnyard   millet,  372 
Johnson   grass,    365 

Kafir  corn,  246 

market  grades  of,  491 
Kentucky  blue-grass,  363 


INDEX 


Leaf  structure,  9 

Legumes,  375 

assimilation  of  nitrogen,  379 
bacterial  inoculation,  381 
characteristics,  307 
composition  of,   377 
desmodium    or    Florida    beggar 

weed,  376 

effect  on  soil  fertility,  378 
lespedeza  or  Japan  clover,  376 
life   of   forage   plants,    314 
lime  requirement,  383 
lupinus  or  lupines,  376 
medicago  or  alfalfa  group,  375 
melilotus  or  sweet  clover,  376 
phaseolus  or  bean  group,  376 
pisum  or  pea  group,  376 
roots  of,  377 
soils  for,  382 
soja  or   soy  bean,  376 
stizo  lobium  or  velvet  bean,  376 
time  of  harvesting,  379 
trifolium  or  clover  group,  375 
vica  or  vetches,  376 

Lime,  38 

for  potatoes,  268 

Listing  corn,  69 
wheat,  130 

Manure,  amount  made  by  animals,  38 

caring  for,  39 

for  grass,   340 

value  of,  399 
Market  grades,  484 
cotton,  233 
hay  and  straw,  484 
oats,  171 
wheat,   133 
Market  types  of  potatoes,  263 

sweet  potatoes,  289 
Marketing  tobacco,  475 
Meadow  fescue,  360 

mixtures,    317 

Meadows,   fertilizers   for,    341 
Millets,  369 

broom-corn,  372 

culture   of,   371 

distribution   of,   369 

feeding  value,  372 

foxtail,  369 

German,  370 

Hungarian,    370 

Japanese  barnyard,  372 

kinds  of,  369 
Milo  maize,  247 


Nitrogen,  fixed  by  legumes,  32 

for   cotton,  223 

source  of,  31 
Nurse  crops,  326 

Oats,  as  a  nurse  crop,  164 

classification,    146 

cultivation  of,   165 

culture   of,    157 

description   of   plant,    149 

diseases  and  insects,  170 

distribution    of    groups,    148 

fertilizer  for,  158 

grain,    151 

harvesting,  167 

hulless,  149 

market  grades,    171,  489 

method  of  sowing,    165 

percentage  of  hull,   152 

production,  3,  141 

proportion    of   grain    to    straw, 
154 

score  card   for,    172 

soils  for,   158 

time  of  seeding,   161 

treatment  for  smut,   160 

weight  per  bushel,  153 
Oat-grass,    360 
Orchard-grass,   350 
Organic  matter,  32 
Osmosis,   7 

Palatability  of  grasses,  312 
Pasture  mixtures,  318 
permanent,  320 
temporary,    319 
Pasturing  alfalfa,  394 
Pea  weevil,   432 
Peanuts,  438 

classification,  440 

composition,  441 

fertilizers  for,  442 

harvesting,  444 

insects   and   diseases,   447 

production,  439 
Pearl   millet,    372 
Peas,  field,  430 
Perennial  rye-grass,  362 
Permanent   grasses,    315 
Plants,   assimilation,    10 

botanical  groups,  2 

classification  by  use,  2 

composition    of,    7 

early  culture,  1 

elements  required  for  growth,  5 


INDEX 


499 


Plants,  evaporation  of  water,  8 

food  sources,  G 

number  cultivated,  1 

root   system,    7 
Plowing,   fall   or  spring,   08 

for   cotton,   226 

for  wheat,   124 
Pop-corn,  47,  90 
Potatoes,  classification,  259 

characteristics   of   tubers,    skin, 
flowers,  etc.,  259 

climate  and   soils  for,   264 

composition,    264 

culture,  271 

degeneration,  266 

description  of  plant,  257 

diseases  and  insects,  279 

fertilizers    for,    267 

harvesting,  277 

improvement    in    breeding,    284 

insects,  284 

level  or  ridge  cultivation,  276 

lime  for,  268 

market  types,   263 

mixing  Bordeaux,   282 

principal  groups,  261 

production,  255 

rate  of  planting,  274 

rotations  for,   268 

source   of   seed,   271 

storage,   278 

Prairie  hay  market  grades,  484 
Production,  barley,  3,  174 

buckwheat,    196 

corn,   3,  41 

cotton,  3,  203 

flax,  239 

grass   seeds,   325 

hay,  3,  301 

oats,  3,  141 

peanuts,  439 

potatoes,   3,   255 

rice,  3 

rye,  3,  189 

sorghum,  244 

sweet  potatoes,  290 

tobacco,  3,  458 

wheat,  3,   104 

Rape,  456 
Red  clover,  398 

fertilizers   for,    402 
inoculation,  406 
seed    production,    404 
varieties,  400 


Redtop,   348 
Root   crops,    450 

beets,   450 
carrots,    456 
turnips,    454 
Roots,   alfalfa,   387 

corn,  49 

general  functions,  5 

grasses,  309 

study  of,  30 

temporary  and  permanent,   21 
Rotation   farming,    34 
Rotations  for  tobacco,  470 
Rust  of  wheat,  137 
Rye,  classification,  191 

culture,  193 

harvesting,    193 

market  grades  of,  488 

production  of,  3,   189 

straw,   194 
Rye-grass,  362 

Score  card  for  corn,  96,   102 
oats,    172 
wheat,    135 
Seeds,  alfalfa,  393 

brome-grass,  358 

Canada   blue-grass,    356 

composition  of,  26 

formation  of,  26 

function  of,   13 

germination  of  grass,  324 
tests,    15,   19 

good,    14 

grass,  317 

production   of,   325 

hard,   323 

Kentucky  blue-grass,  354 

laboratory   exercise,   330 

large  and  small   seeds,   16,   160 

legal  weight  per  bushel,  482 

orchard-grass,    350 

preserving  vitality,  13 

production  of  grass,  325 

red  clover,  404 

redtop,  348 

structure   of   seeds,    17 

sweet  clover,  410 

timothy,  344 

weight  per  bushel,  323,  482 
Shrinkage  of  corn,  85 

potatoes,    279 

wheat,   133 
Siberian   millet,    370 
Silage,  85 


500 


INDEX 


Smut  of  oats,   1GO,   170 

formalin  treatment  for,  Kil 
wheat,  137 
Soft  corn,  47 
Soils,  for  buckwheat,  200 
corn,   55 
cotton,  220 
oats,   158 
potatoes,    267 
productiveness,   31 
rye,    192 

sweet  potatoes,  291 
tobacco,  461 
wheat,   123 
Sorghums,  broom  corn,  248 

culture,  254 
classification,  245 
climate  for,  248 
.culture,  251 
"durra,  247 

drought  resistance,  250 
for  forage,  253 
for    syrup,    253 
kafir  corn,  246 
production,  244 
yield  of  grain,  252 
Soudan  grass,  366 
Soy  beans,  376,  424 
Spelt  wheat  group,   116 
Spikelet,    structure   of,    24 
Spraying  potatoes,  281 

for  weeds,  166 
Spring  and  winter  barleys,  180 

oats,    148 

Starch,  identification  of,   11 
Storing  potatoes,  278 

sweet  potatoes,  297 
Straw,   market  grades,   485 
Sweet  clover,  376,  410 
Sweet  corn,  47,  90 
Sweet  potatoes,  climate  for,  291 
culture    of,    293 
diseases  and  insects,  299 
harvesting,    296 
market  types,  289 
manure   and   fertilizer   for,   I 

292 

propagation  of  plants,  293   { 
storing,  297 
types   and  varieties,   288 

Tall    meadow   oat-grass,    360 
Tangier  pea,   438 
Temporary  pastures,  319 
Tillering  of  oats,  150 


Tillers,   22 

study    of,    30 
Timothy,   advantages  of,  344 

fertilizer   for,   346 

market  grades,  484 
Tobacco,    458 

breeding,  464 

care  of  the  crop,  469 

composition   of,   459 

culture,  455 

curing,   472 

fertilizers   for,   462 

fungous   diseases,   479 

harvesting,  472 

insects,  477 

marketing,  475 

production,  458 

rotations,  470 

soils    for,    461 

stripping,  sorting,  etc.,  474 

types  and  varieties,  459 

yield  and  prices,  476 

Varieties  of  barley,   181 

corn,   58' 

cotton,  207 

pop-corn,  90 

potatoes,   262 

sweet  corn,  91 

sweet  potatoes,  288 

wheat,    117 

Velvet  beans,  376,  418 
Vetches,  376,  433 

bitter,  438 

common,  433 

hairy,  435 

Narbonne,  437 

purple,  438 
Vitality  of  seeds,  13 

Water,  conservation  of.   76 

determination  of,   11 

evaporation  of,  8 

in  grain,  28 

loss  from  soil,  75 

requirements   of   cereals,    250 

requirements  of  oats,   157 
Weeds,  spraying  for,  166 
Wheat,  as  a  bread  crop,   108 

broadcast  vs,  drilling,    127 

classification.    109 

cost  of  producing,  133 

diseases  and  insect  enemies,  137 

durum.    114 

fertilizers  for,   125 


INDEX 


501 


Wheat,  hard  and  soft,  111 

harvesting   and  marketing,    13: 
insect  enemies,   139 
market   grades,    133,    480 
origin  of  varieties,   117 
pasturing,   130 
production  of,   3,    104,    105 
soils  for,    123 
spelt  group,  116 


Wheat,  score  cards  for,  135 

seed,    128 

regions,  114 

spring  and  winter,   107,  119 

stud}'  of  types,  120 

winter-killing,    128 
White    clover,   408 

Zea  mays,   species  of,   47 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM  MANUALS 

Edited  by  KARY  C.  DAVIS,  Educator  and  preeminently  suc- 
cessful Agriculturalist.  Author  of  "Productive  Farming." 

Each  volume  is  stamped  with  the  approval  of  govern- 
ment agricultural  experts,  educators  and  active  money- 
making  farmers.  The  young  man  or  woman  who  wants 
to  make  a  mark  in  the  community  as  a  successful  agricult- 
uralist should  secure  these  books.  Build  up  a  valuable 
farm  library  by  owning  not  the  "pretty  good,"  but  the 
"very  best"  books  upon  the  market.  Intelligent  agri- 
culture is  the  path  to  wealth  and  happiness — no  books 
lead  the  way  in  a  more  easily  understood  manner  than  do 
these.  To  obtain  the  most  accurate,  scientific,  yet  prac- 
tical agricultural  information  has  been  the  aim  of  the 
editor  and  distinguished  authors.  All  the  volumes  are 
new  and  represent  the  very  latest  developments. 

SECOND  EDITION,  1915 

PRODUCTIVE  SWINE  HUSBANDRY 

By  GEORGE  E.  DAY,  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Ontario 
Agricultural  College.  75  illustrations.  333  pages.  Handsome 
cloth  binding.  $1 .75  net. 

Read  the  opinions  from  a  few  of  the  leading  swine  men 
in  the  country: — "Professor  Day's  book  covers  the  ground 
of  pork  production  very  completely,"  Professor  True, 
University  of  California.—  "  Written  from  a  practical 
standpoint  so  that  the  average  swine  producer  can  get 
much  good  information  in  a  short  time,"  Professor  Trow- 
bridge,  University  of  Missouri. — "A  most  excellent  book." 
Professor  Sansom,  Oregon  Agricultural  College. 

It  covers  the  hog  question  more  fully  than  does  any 
other  work  on  swine.  It  is  descriptive  of  all  breeds,  oi 
every  phase,  and  shows  in  addition  to  the  author's  expert 
knowledge  the  findings  of  the  best  experiment  stations  to 
date.  Vital  subjects  to  the  farmer  and  breeder, — feeding, 
management,  marketing,  diseases  and  their  preventions, 
etc., — are  fully  and  carefully  explained. 


SECOND  REVISED  EDITION 

PRODUCTIVE  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

By  HARRY  R.  LEWIS,  Poultry  Husbandman  of  the  New  Jersey 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  329  illustrations.  536  pages. 
Handsome  cloth  binding.  $2.00  net. 

"  A  complete  and  practical  treatise  on  the  breeding, 
feed,  care  and  management  of  poultry,  together  with  chap- 
ters on  fattening,  killing  and  preparing  for  market," 
Experiment  Station  Record,  Washington,  D.  C. — '"One 
of  the  most  comprehensive  and  valuable  books  ever  pub- 
lished on  the  subject  of  poultry,"  American  Poultry  Jour- 
nal, Chicago,  111. — "I  take  great  pleasure  in  recommending 
Productive  Poultry  Husbandry*  as  one  of  the  best  text 
reference  books  I  know,"  Professor  Linton,  Michigan 
Agricultural  College. 

There  is  no  problem  in  any  phase  of  practical  poultry 
raising  that  is  not  thoroughly  and  clearly  treated  in  this 
book.  Because  it  deals  entirely  from  the  practical  and 
utility  view  point  it  will  appeal  especially  to  the  man, 
woman  or  youngster  handling  chickens.  Every  person 
with  five  or  five  thousand  chickens  will  be  glad  to  have 
this  book. 

PRODUCTIVE  HORSE  HUSBANDRY 

By  CARL  W.  GAY,  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  School 
of  Veterinary  Medicine,  University  of  Pennsylvania.  173  illus- 
trations. 331  pages.  Handsome  cloth  binding.  $1.75  net. 

"Doctor  Gay  aims  to  swing  horse  producers  back  to 
proper  breeding  standards.  The  hearkening  to  his  teach- 
ings will  enhance  the  value  of  horses  and  make  them  more 
acceptable  to  producers,  buyers,  users  of  these  animals." 
Chicago  Veterinary  College  Quarterly  Bulletin. — "Impos- 
sible to  do  justice  in  a  description,"  American  Veterinary 
Review. — "A  notable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the 
horse.  It  is  especially  suited  to  the  use  of  the  student  who 
wishes  to  approach  the  subject  from  a  scientific  and  prac- 
tical point  of  view,"  Professor  Plumb,  Ohio  University. 

The  book  is  not  only  for  the  owner  of  the  large  stud 
tarm,  but  especially  for  the  active  farmer  who  takes  ad- 
vantage of  the  opportunity  afforded  by  one  or  more 
brood  mares  to  have  a  money-making  byproduct. 
There  will  always  be  a  demand  for  horses. 


PRODUCTIVE  ORCHARDING 

By  FRED  C.  SEARS,  Active  Orchardman  and  Professor  of 
Pomology,  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College.  157  illustra- 
tions. 31 6  pages.  Handsome  cloth.  $1.75  net. 

"  Worthy  of  a  place  in  the  library  of  every  commercial 
orcharder  and  particularly  of  every  apple  grower,"  S.  A. 
Beach,  Chief  Horticulturalist,  Iowa  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station. — "A  valuable  contribution  to  our  horticul- 
tural literature  from  theinterests  of  the  practical  orchardist 
as  well  as  the  college  student  in  orcharding."  Prof.  J.  C. 
Whitten,  University  of  Missouri. — "The  methods  he  recom- 
mends if  followed  intelligently  can  hardly  fail  to  give  suc- 
cess," L.  R.  Taft,  State  Inspector,  Michigan  State  Board 
of  Agriculture. 

Every  owner  either  of  a  small  family  or  a  large  commercial 
orchard,  needs  this  work  and  will  find  it  valuable.  The 
author,  who  has  personally  managed  a  successful  orchard, 
has  carefully  sifted  and  discarded  methods  which  will  not 
work,  and  included  only  those  of  known  and  tried  value. 
It  is  practical  and  authoritative  for  the  beginner  and  the 
expert,  the  illustrations  all  have  a  direct  message. 

PRODUCTIVE  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

By  JOHN  W.  LLYOD,  Professor  of  Olericulture,  University  of 
Illinois.  192  illustrations.  320  pages.  Handsome  cloth  bind- 
ing. $1.75  net. 

New  York  State  produces  some  sixteen  million  dollars' 
worth  of  vegetables  annually,  aftd  State  Director  of 
Farmers'  Institutes  Van  Alstyne  says  of  this  work,  "I 
consider  it  intensely  practical  and  of  great  value  to  both 
the  individual  who  may  be  interested  in  vegetable  growing 
and  also  as  a  text-book  for  students  in  our  agricultural 
schools."-  -"  I  know  of  no  work  which  in  my  judgment 
is  better  suited  to  the  use  of  students  as  a  text-book  or 
for  the  practical  vegetable  grower."  Prof.  J.  C.  Whitten, 
University  of  Missouri. 

The  cultural  requirements  of  nearly  every  crop  are 
analysed  in  the  light  of  many  years'  experience,  and  in  a 
clear  and  logical  manner  every  step  is  thoroughly 
explained  with  the  help  of  magnificent  illustrations.  It 
places  vegetable  gardening  on  a  safe  and  sure  basis. 


COMMON-DISEASES  OF  FARM 
ANIMALS 

By  R.  A.  CRAIG,  D.V.M.,  Professor  of  Veterinary  Science, 
Purdue  University.  124  illustrations.  327  pages.  Handsome 
cloth  binding.  $1.75  net. 

"The  book  would  make  a  valuable  addition  to  the 
library  of  any  farmer,  stockman  or  student  of  animal 
husbandry,"  Professor  Carmichael,  University  of  Illinois. 
— "  I  consider  the  choice  of  material  which  has  been 
made  very  good  and  also  think  it  is  presented  in  a  prac- 
tical and  usable  form.  I  believe  it  will  be  popular,  not 
only  with  students  of  animal  husbandry  but  also  with 
farmers,"  Prof.  E.  F.  Ferrin,  Iowa  State  College  of 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Arts. 

Success  in  farming  has  its  foundation  in  maintaining  good 
health  in  your  animals.  The  author  has  especially  empha- 
sized the  causes,  prevention  and  early  recognition  of  com- 
mon diseases.  The  book  is  an  authoritative  guide  to  farmers 
but  does  not  trespass  upon  the  domain  of  the  veterinarian. 
It  is  worth  your  while  to  know  how  to  keep  your  stock 
healthy — prevention  is  better  and  cheaper  than  cure. 

PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM 
ANIMALS 

By  F.  W.  WOLL,  Professor  of  Animal  Nutrition,  University  of 
California.  96  illustrations.  362  pages.  Handsome  cloth  bind- 
ing. $1.75  net. 

"It  is  to  my  mind,  the  best  arranged  and  most  condensed 
treatise  on  the  subject  of  feeding  farm  animals  that  has 
been  published,  "  Prof.  W.  H.  Tomhave,  Pennsylvania 
State  College.  —  "A  helpful,  timely  book."  Professor 
W.  A.  Henry,  University  of  Wisconsin. — "Should  be  read 
by  every  student  of  the  farming  industry,  no  matter 
whether  he  is  in  the  school-room  and  in  his  infancy,  or  out 
in  the  world  and  producing,"  S.  S.  Oldham,  Superintendent 
of  James  J.  Hill's  North  Oaks  Stock  Farm. 

This  subject  is  of  more  economic  importance  than  any 
other  single  matter  the  agriculturist  has  to  tackle  when 
handling  live  stock  on  the  farm.  Professor  Woll  has  sifted 
the  mass  of  experimental  work  so  that  the  student  and  the 
stockman  has  at  his  command  a  concise  discussion  upon 
feeding  farm  animals. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

Books  not  returned  on  time  are  subject  to  a  fine  of 
50c  per  volume  after  the  third  day  overdue,  increasing 
to  $1.00  per  volume  after  the  sixth  day.  Books  not  in 
demand  may  be  renewed  if  application  is  made  before 
expiration  of  loan  period. 


131920 

FEB  11  I92J 
MAR    5   1925 


50m-7,'16 


385133 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


